Between the 17th and 19th centuries, officer's commissions in infantry and cavalry units of the English and British armies could be purchased. This avoided the need to wait to be promoted for merit or seniority, and was the usual way to obtain a rank in both armies. The practice began in 1683 during the reign of Charles II of England. It existed until it was abolished on 1 November 1871 as part of the Cardwell Reforms. Formally, the purchase price of a commission was a cash bond for good behaviour, liable to be forfeited if the officer in question was found guilty of cowardice, desertion, or gross misconduct.

Only commissions in cavalry and infantry regiments could be purchased, up to the rank of colonel. Commissions in the Royal Engineers and the Royal Artillery were awarded to those who graduated from a course at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and subsequent promotion was by seniority. Moreover, the Royal Navy never practised the sale of commissions, officer promotion being solely by merit or seniority (at least in theory).

The official values of commissions varied by branch (see below). Payments in excess of regulation (non-official) usually accorded with the differing social prestige of different regiments.^[1]

For example, in 1837 the costs of commissions were:

These prices were incremental. To purchase a promotion, an officer only had to pay the difference in price between his existing rank and the desired rank.^[2]

Theoretically, a commission could be sold only for its official value and was to be offered first to the next most senior officer in the same regiment.^[3] In practice, there was also an unofficial "over-regulation price" or "regimental value", which might double the official cost. Desirable commissions in fashionable regiments were often sold to the highest bidder after an auction. A self-interested senior officer might well regard his commission as his pension fund and would encourage the increase of its value. An officer who incurred or inherited debts might sell his commission to raise funds.

Social exclusiveness was preserved not only by money, as regimental colonels were permitted to – and often did – refuse the purchase of a commission in their regiment by a man who had the necessary money but was not from a social background to their liking. This was especially the case in the Household and Guards regiments, which were dominated by the nobility. Elsewhere, however, it was not unknown for Colonels to lend deserving senior non-commissioned officers or warrant officers the funds necessary to purchase commissions.^[4]

Not all first commissions or promotions were paid for. If an officer was killed in action or appointed to the Staff (usually through being promoted to Major General), this created a series of "non-purchase vacancies" within his regiment. These could also occur when new regiments or battalions were created, or when the establishments of existing units were expanded. However, all vacancies resulting from officers dying of disease, retiring (whether on full or half pay) or resigning their commissions were "purchase vacancies".^[1] A period, usually of several years, had to elapse before an officer who succeeded to a non-purchase vacancy could sell his commission. For instance, if a Captain were promoted to Major to fill a non-purchase vacancy but decided to quit the Army immediately afterwards, he would receive only the value of his Captain's commission.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the English lawyer, see Joseph Child Priestley. For the British lecturer in botany, see Joseph Hubert Priestley.

Joseph Priestley FRS
Portrait of Priestley, 1801
Born	24 March [O.S. 13 March] 1733 Birstall, Yorkshire, England
Died	6 February 1804 (aged 70) Northumberland, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Occupations	Chemist natural philosopher theologian grammarian teacher
Known for	Discovery of oxygen (O2) and nine other gases, including carbon monoxide(CO), nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), ammonia (NH3), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen peroxide (N2O4) Discovery of the carbon cycle
Awards	Fellow of the Royal Society(1766)[1] Copley Medal (1772)[2]

Joseph Priestley FRS (/ˈpriːstli/;^[3] 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, Unitarian, natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator and classical liberal political theorist.^[4] He published over 150 works, and conducted experiments in several areas of science.^[5][6]

Priestley is credited with his independent discovery of oxygen by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide,^[7] having isolated it in 1774.^[8] During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of carbonated water, his writings on electricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous^[9]being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolutioneventually left him isolated within the scientific community.

Priestley's science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism.^[10] In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, materialism, and determinism, a project that has been called "audacious and original".^[11] He believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian millennium.^[11] Priestley, who strongly believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters, which also led him to help found Unitarianism in England. The controversial nature of Priestley's publications, combined with his outspoken support of the American Revolution and later the French Revolution,^[12][13] aroused public and governmental contempt; eventually forcing him to flee in 1791, first to London and then to the United States, after a mob burned down his Birmingham home and church. He spent his last ten years in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania.

A scholar and teacher throughout his life, Priestley made significant contributions to pedagogy, including the publication of a seminal work on English grammar and books on history; he prepared some of the most influential early timelines. The educational writings were among Priestley's most popular works. Arguably his metaphysical works, however, had the most lasting influence, as now considered primary sources for utilitarianism by philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Herbert Spencer.

Jacobins

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Jacobin (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Jacobean (disambiguation) or Jacobite (disambiguation).

Jacobin Club
Club des Jacobins
Also known as	Society of the Friends of the Constitution
Foundation	1789; 236 years ago
Dissolved	1794; 231 years ago
Country	French First Republic
Groups	Girondins The Plain Montagnards
Motives	Create a Jacobin society[1]
Headquarters	Dominican convent, Rue Saint-Honoré, Paris
Newspaper	Journal de la Montagne[2]
Ideology	Jacobinism[8] Classical radicalism[9] French secularism[10]
Political position	Left-wing[14]
Major actions	Reign of Terror (1792–94)
Status	Defunct political group
Size	approx. 500,000 (1793 est.)
Preceded by Club Breton Succeeded by Panthéon Club

The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (French: Société des amis de la Constitution), renamed the Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality (Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité) after 1792 and commonly known as the Jacobin Club (Club des Jacobins) or simply the Jacobins(/ˈdʒækəbɪnz/; French: [ʒakɔbɛ̃]), was the most influential political club during the French Revolution of 1789. The period of its political ascendancy includes the Reign of Terror, during which well over 10,000 people were put on trial and executed in France, many for "political crimes".^[15][16]

Initially founded in 1789 by anti-royalist deputies from Brittany, the club grew into a nationwide republican movement with a membership estimated at a half million or more.^[17] The Jacobin Club was heterogeneous and included both prominent parliamentary factions of the early 1790s: The Mountain and the Girondins.^[18] In 1792–93, the Girondins were more prominent in leading France when they declared war on Austriaand on Prussia, overthrew King Louis XVI, and set up the French First Republic. In May 1793, the leaders of the Mountain faction, led by Maximilien Robespierre, succeeded in sidelining the Girondin faction and controlled the government until July 1794. Their time in government featured high levels of political violence, and for this reason the period of the Jacobin/Mountain government is identified as the Reign of Terror. In October 1793, 21 prominent Girondins were guillotined. The Mountain-dominated government executed 17,000 opponents nationwide as a way to suppress the Vendée insurrectionand the Federalist revolts, and to deter recurrences. In July 1794, the National Convention pushed the administration of Robespierre and his allies out of power and had Robespierre and 21 associates executed. In November 1794, the Jacobin Club closed.