BritishSolomon Islands

History of Solomon Islands

SolomonIslands is a sovereign state in the Melanesia subregionof Oceania inthe western PacificOcean. This page is about the history of the nation state rather than thebroader geographical area of the Solomon Islands archipelago, whichcovers both Solomon Islands and Bougainville Island, a province of PapuaNew Guinea. For the history of the archipelago not covered here refer tothe former administration of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate,the North Solomon Islands and the History of Bougainville.

Earliest inhabitants inSolomon Islands

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The human history of SolomonIslands begins with the first Papuan settlementat least 30,000 years ago from New Guinea.They represented the furthest expansion of humans into the Pacific until theexpansion of Austronesian-language speakers throughthe area around 4000 BC, bringing new agricultural and maritime technology.Most of the languages spoken today in Solomon Islands derive from this era, butsome thirty languages of the pre-Austronesian settlers survive. Most of thepeople that settled there back then were Papuans (see East Papuan languages).

There are preserved numerouspre-European cultural monuments in Solomon Islands, notably Bao megalithicshrine complex (13th century AD), Nusa Roviana fortress and shrines (14th –19th century), Vonavona Skull island – all in Western province. Nusa Rovianafortress, shrines and surrounding villages served as a hub of regional tradenetworks in 17th – 19th centuries. Skull shrines of Nusa Roviana are sites oflegends. Better known is Tiola shrine – site of legendary stone dog whichturned towards the direction where enemy of Roviana was coming from.^[1] Thiscomplex of archaeological monuments characterises fast development of localRoviana culture, through trade and head hunting expeditions turning intoregional power in 17th – 18th centuries.^[2]

European contact

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Ships of the Spanishexplorer Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira firstsighted Santa Isabel island on 7 February 1568.^[3] Findingsigns of alluvial gold on Guadalcanal, Mendaña believed he had found the sourceof King Solomon's wealth, and consequently named theislands "The Islands of Solomon".^[4]

In 1595 and 1605 Spain againsent several expeditions to find the islands and establish a colony; howeverthese were unsuccessful.^[3] In1767, Commander PhilipCarteret of HMS Swallow rediscoveredthe Santa Cruz Islands and Malaita.^[5] Later,Dutch, French and British navigators visited the islands; their reception wasoften hostile.^[6]

Christian missionaries beganvisiting the Solomons from the 1840s, beginning with an attempt by FrenchCatholics under Jean-Baptiste Epalle to establish a mission on Santa Isabel Island, which was abandoned afterEpalle was killed by islanders in 1845.^[7][8] Anglicanmissionaries began arriving from the 1850s, followed by other denominations,over time gaining a large number of converts.^[9]

Museums with significantcollections of Solomon Islands artifacts include the BishopMuseum, the Peabody Museum of Salem, South Sea Islands Museum and National Museum of Ireland.^[10]

Colonisation

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Main article: British Solomon Islands

Sikaiana, thenknown as the Stewart Islands, was annexed to the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1856.Hawai'i did not formalize the annexation, and the United States refused torecognize Hawaiian sovereignty over Sikaiana when the United States annexedHawai'i in 1898.^[11]

The colonial ambitionsof Imperial Germany led to the establishment of aGerman Protectorate over the North Solomon Islands, which covered parts ofwhat is now Solomon Islands, following the Anglo-GermanDeclarations about the Western Pacific Ocean (1886), which established"spheres of influence" that Germany and the UnitedKingdom agreed, with Germany giving up its claim to the southernSolomon Islands.

In June 1893, Captain Herbert Gibson of HMS Curacoa, declared the southernSolomon Islands a British protectorate.^[12][13]

No immediate steps to placeadministrators in the Solomon Islands, which were made part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT),which was administered by a high commissioner who residedin Fiji. TheColonial Office appointed Charles Morris Woodford as theResident Commissioner in the SolomonIslands on 17 February 1897. He was directed to control the labourtrade operating in the Solomon Island waters and to stop the illegaltrade in firearms.^[14] Arthur Mahaffy was appointed as theDeputy Commissioner to Woodford in January 1898.^[15][16] InJanuary 1900, Mahaffy established a government station at Gizo, as Woodford considered Mahaffy’smilitary training as making him suitable for the role of suppressing headhunting in NewGeorgia and neighbouring islands.^[16][17]

In 1898 Britain annexedthe Santa Cruz and the Rennell and Bellona Islands. In 1900,under the terms of the Treaty of Berlin (14 November1899), Germany transferred Choiseul, Santa Isabel, theShortlands and OntongJava Atoll Islands to the British Solomon IslandsProtectorate, but retained Bougainville and its surrounding islands.Germany granted this claim in exchange for the British giving up all claimsto Western Samoa.

In 1927 DistrictCommissioner William R. Bell was killed on Malaita, alongwith a cadet named Lillies and 13 Solomon Islanders in his charge. Amassive punitive expedition, known as the Malaitamassacre, ensued; at least 60 Kwaio werekilled, nearly 200 detained in Tulagi (theprotectorate capital), and many sacred sites and objects were destroyed ordesecrated. Basiana,who had killed Bell, was hanged publicly on 29 June 1928.^[18]

The British SolomonIslands Protectorate was first established in June 1893, whenCaptain Herbert Gibson of HMS Curacoa declared thesouthern Solomon Islands a British protectorate.^[1][2]

Christian missionaries beganvisiting the Solomons from the 1840s, beginning with an attempt by FrenchCatholics under Jean-Baptiste Epalle to establish a mission on Santa Isabel Island, which was abandoned afterEpalle was killed by islanders in 1845.^[3][4] Anglicanmissionaries began arriving from the 1850s, followed by other denominations,over time gaining a large number of converts.^[5]

The Anglo-GermanDeclarations about the Western Pacific Ocean (1886), established"spheres of influence" that ImperialGermany and the UnitedKingdom agreed, with Germany giving up its claim to the southernSolomon Islands. Following the formal declaration of the Protectorate in1893, Bellona and RennellIslands and Sikaiana (formerly the Stewart Islands) were added tothe Protectorate in 1897, and the Santa Cruz group, the ReefIslands, Anuda (Cherry), Fataka (Mitre) and Trevannion Islands and Duff (Wilson)group in 1898. German interests in the islands to the east and south-eastof Bougainville were transferred to theUnited Kingdom under the Samoa Tripartite Convention of1899, in exchange for recognition of the German claim to WesternSamoa. In October 1900, the High Commissioner issued a Proclamationextending the Protectorate to the islands in question, i.e. Choiseul, Ysabel, Shortland and FauroIslands (each with its dependencies), the Tasman group, Lord Howe'sgroup and Gower Island.^[6][2]

The Protectorate wasadministered as part of the British Western Pacific Territories (BWPT)until the Solomon Islands became independent in 1978.During the 1950s, the British colonial administration built a network ofofficial local councils. On this platform Solomon Islanders with experience onthe local councils started participation in central government, initiallythrough the bureaucracy and then, from 1960, through the newlyestablished Legislative and ExecutiveCouncils. The 1970 constitution replaced the Legislative and ExecutiveCouncils with a single Governing Council.

A new constitution wasintroduced in 1974 which established a standard Westminster form of governmentand gave the Islanders both Chief Ministerial and Cabinet responsibilities.Governing Council was transformed into the Legislative Assembly.The Protectorate that existed over Solomon Islands was ended under the terms ofthe Solomon Islands Act 1978.

Establishment and additionof islands

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After the Anglo-GermanDeclarations about the Western Pacific Ocean (1886), the Protectoratewas first declared over the southern Solomons in June 1893.^[2] Theformalities in its establishment were carried out by Captain Herbert Gibson of HMS Curacoa, who hoisted the Britishflag and read Proclamations on twenty-one islands.^[2]

In April 1896, Charles Morris Woodford was appointedas an Acting Deputy Commissioner of the British Western Pacific Territories.From 30 May to 10 August 1896, HMS Pylades toured throughthe Solomon Islands archipelago withWoodford, who had been sent to survey the islands and to report on the economicfeasibility of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate.^[6] On29 September 1896, in anticipation of the establishment of the British SolomonIslands Protectorate, Woodford purchased the island of Tulagi, which heselected as the site for the administrative centre.^[6] The ColonialOffice appointed Woodford as the Resident Commissioner in the SolomonIslands on 17 February 1897. He was directed to control the labourtrade operating in the Solomon Island waters and to stop the illegaltrade in firearms.^[6]

Bellona and RennellIslands and Sikaiana (formerly the Stewart Islands) were added tothe Protectorate in 1897, and the Santa Cruz group, the ReefIslands, Anuda (Cherry), Fataka (Mitre) and Trevannion Islands and Duff (Wilson)group in 1898.^[6][2] On18 August 1898 and 1 October 1898, the High Commissioner for the WesternPacific issued Proclamations which declared (apparently superfluously) that allthose islands should "henceforth" form part of the Protectorate.^[2] Thetwo Proclamations of 1898 were superseded by one dated 28 January 1899, whichwas apparently intended not to consolidate them but also to correctgeographical errors: it lists "the Reef Islands, Swallow Group" and adifferent group of islands referred to collectively as "the SwallowGroup," and it includes Trevannion in the Santa Cruz group.^[2]

German interests in theislands to the east and south-east of Bougainville were transferred to theUnited Kingdom under the Samoa Tripartite Convention of1899, in exchange for recognition of the German claim to WesternSamoa.^{[7][8][9][10][11]} InOctober 1900, the High Commissioner issued a Proclamation extending theProtectorate to the islands in question, i.e. Choiseul, Ysabel, Shortland and FauroIslands (each with its dependencies), the Tasman group, Lord Howe'sgroup and Gower Island.^[2][6]

Suppression of headhuntingand punitive expeditions

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From the establishment ofBritish colonial rule until approximately 1902, Solomon Islanders continued tolaunch headhunting raids and murder European traders andcolonists. The British responded by dispatching Royal Navy warshipsto launch punitive expeditions against the villagesresponsible in an effort to curb such activities.^[6][12][13]

On September 1891,several Kalikoqu tribesmenkilled a European trader operating on Uki Island namedFred Howard. In response, the screw-sloop HMS Royalist launched apunitive expedition against the village responsible, killing several of thetribesmen who were involved in the murder along with burning the village anddestroying several of its canoes.^[14]

In March 1897, the RoyalNavy warship HMS Rapid launched a punitiveexpedition, targeting villages which had been responsible for the murders ofEuropean traders and colonists on the islands of Rendova, NewGeorgia, Nggatokae and VellaLavella.^[15]

Arthur Mahaffy was appointed as theDeputy Commissioner in January 1898.^[6][16] InJanuary 1900, Mahaffy established a government station at Gizo, as Woodford considered Mahaffy’smilitary training as making him suitable for the role of suppressing headhunting in NewGeorgia and neighbouring islands.^[6][17] Mahaffyhad a force of twenty-five police officers armed with rifles.^[16] Thefirst target of this force was chief Ingava of the Roviana Lagoon of NewGeorgia who had been raiding Choiseul and Isabel andkilling or enslaves hundreds of people.^[16]

Mahaffy and the policeofficers under his command carried out a violent and ruthless suppression ofheadhunting, with his actions having the support of Woodford and the Western Pacific High Commission,who wanted to eradicate headhunting and complete a “pacification” of thewestern Solomon Islands.^[6] Mahaffyseized and destroyed large war canoes (tomokos). One of which was usedto transport the police officers.^[16] Thewestern Solomon were substantially pacified by 1902.^[6] Duringthis time Mahaffy acquired artefacts held in high value by the SolomonIslanders for his personal collection.^[18]

Arthur Mahaffy visited Malaita on HMS Sparrow (1889), as aresident magistrate, in 1902 to investigate several deaths. Mahaffy demandedthe Malaitians give up the person believed to be the murderer, and when theydid not, Sparrow shelled the village and a shore party burntdown the village and killed the pigs.^[19] Malaitawas a difficult island to administer as Mahaffy believed that 80 per cent ofMalaitan males possessed firearms in the 1900s. There were frequentinter-tribal killings and pay-back killings. Indiscriminate naval bombardmentsor naval shore parties destroying villages, canoes and killing pigs to punishSolomon Islanders was a common response to incidents, where the colonialadministrators could not arrest the perpetrators of killings.^[19]

Shipping in the SolomonIslands

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Woodford initially used a27-foot open whaleboat to travel between the islands,^[15] ortravelled on any available trading boat or Royal Navy ship. From 1896 the BurnsPhilp steamship the Titus was making between four andseven voyages from Sydney to the Solomon Islands. Two ships owned by GustavusJohn Waterhouse of Sydney operated in the Solomon Islands; the schooner Chittoor,and SS Kurrara, a steam ship. The schooner Lark ownedby J. Hawkins, from Sydney, also sailed in the waters of the Solomon Islands.^[20]

In 1899, Woodford purchasedthe Lahloo, a 33-ton ketch, which he usedfor suppressing head-hunting in the NewGeorgia group. The Lahloo was wrecked in 1909.The Belama, a 100-ton steam ship, was acquired in 1909. However, itwas wrecked in February 1911 when it struck an uncharted reef off Isabel. The replacement ship, also named Belama,(previously the river steamer Awittaka) arrived at Tulagi in August1911. It was wrecked off Isabel in 1921.^[21]

From about 1900, BurnsPhilp had a dominant role in trade in the region distributing generalmerchandise and collecting copra.^[21] Shipsservicing the Levers Pacific Plantations startedin 1903. In 1904, Burns Philp began to acquire plantations and land to developinto plantations in the British Solomon Islands.^[21]

W. R. Carpenter & Co. (Solomon Islands)Ltd was established in 1922 and became storekeepers, traders, andoperated a fleet of inter-island steamers.^[22][23]

Plantation economy

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The policy of the colonialofficials was to attempt to make the protectorate self-supporting through taxesimposed on copra andother products exported from the Islands. The long-term interests of theislanders was relegated to a secondary priority as the colonial officialsfocused on encouraging investment by British and Australian corporate tradingcompanies and individual plantation owners. By 1902, there were about 83Europeans in the Solomon Islands, with most engaged in the development of copraplantations.^[24]

The Solomon (Waste Land)Regulation of 1900 (Queen's Regulation no. 3 of 1900), and later revisions, wasintended by the British Solomon Islands administration in Tulagi, the Western Pacific High Commission in Suva, and the ColonialOffice in London to make land available for commercial plantations bya formal process of identifying ‘waste land' – that is land not occupied bySolomon Islanders – which could be declared “not owned, cultivated, or occupiedby any native or non-native person”.^[24] Regulation3 of 1900 implemented a concept of ‘waste land' that was not consistent withMelanesian customs, as unoccupied land was still recognised by customary law asbeing the property of individual people and communities.^[24]

From 1900 to 1902, anattempt was made by the Pacific Islands Company Ltd to establishplantations. However, it was unable to raise sufficient capital to establishplantations because Regulation 3 of 1900 only permitted the issue of‘Certificates of Occupation’ of the land and not a formal lease. This limitedright to occupy the land were not accepted by financiers as sufficientcollateral to finance development of plantations.^[25]

In 1903, Levers Pacific Plantations Limitedpurchased 50,000 acres of coconut plantations from Lars Nielsen for £6,500, andin 1906 the company purchased the coconut plantation concessions from the Pacific Islands Company Ltd for £5,000. By1905 the company had acquired approximately 80,000 acres in the Solomon Islandswhich were distributed over 14 islands: 51,000 acres from Lars Nielsen andother plantation owners, and 28,870 acres purchased from islanders.^[26]

The plantation companiescame into conflict with Charles Morris Woodford, the ResidentCommissioner in the Solomon Islands, over his management of land alienationfrom the Solomon Islanders to plantation owners. The complaints includingWoodford withdrawing ‘waste land’ from transfer to plantation owners when theoriginal Solomon Islander owners were identified, and insisting on strictconformity with the improvement clauses on leases.^[27] TheSolomons (Land) Regulation of 1914 (King's Regulation no. 3 of 1914), replaceearlier regulations, and ended the alienation of land from Solomon Islanderowners and a leasehold system was instituted for plantation land.^[27]

Levers Pacific Plantations Ltd, asubsidiary of Lever Brothers, became the largest operator ofplantations, with 26 plantations established by 1916. The Malayta Companyoperated 7 plantations, and was controlled by the Young family who wereassociated with the South Seas Evangelical Church. Burns,Philp & Co operated 7 plantations through subsidiaries - theSolomon Islands Development Company, the Shortland Islands Plantation Ltd andChoiseul Plantations Ltd.^[28] BurnsPhilp acquired 800 acres of coconut plantations in the Shortland Islands andother properties from plantation owners.^[28] In1917, Burns Philp acquired 15,000 acres of grass lands on Guadalcanal ona 999 year lease.^[28]

These corporate plantationowners employed 55 per cent of the Solomon Islanders engaged in the copraindustry, with individual plantation owners employing the remaining 45 percent.^[29]

Burns, Philp acquired theisland of Makambo in Tulagi Harbour to operate as a trading station and cargodepot in competition with Lever’s operation on Gavutu Islandthat was nearby Tulagi.^[30] Tulagicontained the administrative headquarters of the Protectorate and otherfacilities such as the hospital and jail, as well as a hotel and clubhouse foradministrators and plantation owners.^[30]

World War II

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Japanese invasion of theSolomon Islands

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In 1940 Donald Gilbert Kennedy joined theadministration of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. Following theJapanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December1941, Kennedy organised an intelligence-gathering network of local informantsand messengers to carry out the role of Coastwatchers tomonitor Japanese activity. The Coastwatchers were planters, governmentofficials, missionaries and islanders monitoring who went into hiding after theJapanese invasion of the Solomon Islands in January 1942. The Coastwatchersmonitored Japanese shipping and aircraft (reporting by radio) and also rescuedAllied personnel who were stranded in the territory held by the Japanese.^[31][32][33]

The counter-attack was ledby the United States; the 1st Division of the US Marine Corps landed on Guadalcanal and Tulagi inAugust 1942. Some of the bitterest fighting of WorldWar II took place on the islands for almost three years.

Tulagi, the seat of theBritish administration on the island of Nggela Sule in Central Province wasdestroyed in the heavy fighting following landings by the US Marines. Then thetough battle for Guadalcanal, which was centered on the capture of the airfield,Henderson Field, led to the development of the adjacent town of Honiara as theUnited States logistics center.

Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana

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Islanders Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana wereAllied scouts during the war. They became famous when they were noted by National Geographic for being thefirst men to find the shipwrecked JohnF. Kennedy and his crew of the PT-109 using a traditional dugoutcanoe. They suggested the idea of using a coconut to write a rescue messagefor delivery. The coconut was later kept on Kennedy's desk. Their names had notbeen credited in most movie and historical accounts, and they were turned backbefore they could visit President Kennedy's inauguration, though the Australiancoastwatcher would also meet the president.

Gasa and Kumana wereinterviewed by National Geographic in 2002, and can be seen onthe DVD of the television special. They were presented a bust by MaxKennedy, a son of RobertF. Kennedy. The National Geographic had gone there as partof an expedition by Robert Ballard, who found the remains of the PT-109.The special was called The Search for Kennedy's PT 109.^[34]

Ambassador CarolineKennedy met John Koloni, the son of Kumana, and Nelma Ane, daughter ofGasa at a ceremony in August 2023 in Honiara tomark the 80th anniversary of the battle of Guadalcanal. She also visited theplaces that her father had swum after the sinking of PT 109.^[35][36][37]

War consequences

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The impact of the war onislanders was profound. The destruction caused by the fighting and thelonger-term consequences of the introduction of modern materials, machinery andwestern cultural artifacts, transformed traditional isolated island ways of life.The reconstruction was slow in the absence of war reparations and with thedestruction of the pre-war plantations, formerly the mainstay of the economy.Significantly, the Solomon Islanders' experience as labourers with the Alliesled some to a new appreciation of the importance of economic organisation andtrade as the basis for material advancement. Some of these ideas were put intopractice in the early post-war political movement "MaasinaRuru"—often redacted to "Marching Rule".

Towards independence

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Legislative Council andExecutive Council

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Stability was restoredduring the 1950s, as the British colonial administration built a network ofofficial local councils. On this platform Solomon Islanders with experience onthe local councils started participation in central government, initially throughthe bureaucracy and then, from 1960, through the newly established Legislative and ExecutiveCouncils. The Protectorate did not possess a constitution of its own until1960.^[2] Positionson both Councils were initially appointed by the High Commissioner for theWestern Pacific,^[2] butprogressively more of the positions were directly elected or appointed byelectoral colleges formed by the local councils.

A major issue faced by theauthorities in extending democratic representation was the low level ofliteracy, estimated to be below 6% in 1970.^[38] Thesolution was to allow for voters to whisper their vote to the presidingofficial, normally the District commissioner or Districtofficer who recorded the votes cast this way.^[39][40]

Proposed transfer toAustralia

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In the 1950s, British andAustralian government officials contemplated transferring sovereignty of theSolomon Islands from the United Kingdom to Australia. The Solomon Islands hadclose ties to Australia; it used the Australianpound, relied on Australian air and shipping services, employed manyAustralians as civil servants, and its businesses were dependent uponAustralian capital. Some Australian officials argued that the British had shownlittle interest in the development of the islands, while British officialsbelieved Australia did not have sufficient trained staff to take over theadministration. Unlike ChristmasIsland, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and the NewHebrides, Australia made no formal request for a transfer of sovereignty.However, there were informal discussions between officials in the ColonialOffice and the Australian Department of Territories.^[41][42]

In 1956, Australianterritories minister Paul Hasluck proposed to federal cabinet that Australia take overthe Solomons, with the support of External Affairs Minister Richard Casey. It was proposed thatAustralia would effectively double the annual development funds that the UK hadallocated to the Solomons, from £1,073,533 (equivalent to £34,000,000 in 2023)to about £2,000,000 (equivalent to £63,000,000 in 2023). However, Australia's Treasury Department wasunenthused about the additional expenditure, and the Department of Defence statedthere was "no defence advantage in assuming responsibility" with theislands in British hands. The Australian cabinet rejected the proposal.^[41][42]

First national election

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The first national electionwas held in 1964 for the seat of Honiara, and by 1967 the first generalelection was held for all but one of the 15 representative seats on theLegislative Council (the one exception was the Eastern Outer Islands constituency,which was again appointed by electoral college).

Elections were held again in1970 and a new constitution was introduced. The 1970 constitution replaced theLegislative and Executive Councils with a single Governing Council. It alsoestablished a 'committee system of government' where all members of the Councilsat on one or more of five committees. The aims of this system were to reducedivisions between elected representatives and the colonial bureaucracy and toprovide opportunities for training new representatives in managing theresponsibilities of government. It was also claimed that this system was moreconsistent with the Melanesian style of government, however, this was quicklyundermined by opposition to the 1970 constitution and the committee system byelected members of the council. As a result, a new constitution was introducedin 1974 which established a standard Westminster form of government and gavethe Islanders both Chief Ministerial and Cabinet responsibilities. SolomonMamaloni became the country's first Chief Minister in July 1974 and theGoverning Council was transformed into the Legislative Assembly.The protectorate that existed over Solomon Islands was ended under the terms ofthe Solomon Islands Act 1978 whichannexed the territories comprising the protectorate as part of Her Majesty’sdominions.

Solomon Islands,^[7] alsoknown simply as the Solomons,^[8] isa country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Melanesia,part of Oceania,to the northeast of Australia. It is directly adjacent to PapuaNew Guinea to the west, Australia tothe southwest, New Caledonia and Vanuatu tothe southeast, Fiji, Wallisand Futuna, and Tuvalu to the east, and Nauru andthe Federated States of Micronesia tothe north. It has a total area of 28,896 square kilometres (11,157 sq mi),^[9] anda population of 734,887 according to the official estimates for mid 2023.^[10] Itscapital and largest city, Honiara, is located on the largest island, Guadalcanal.The country takes its name from the wider area of the Solomon Islands archipelago, which isa collection of Melanesian islands that also includes the Autonomous Region of Bougainville (currentlya part of Papua New Guinea), but excludes the Santa Cruz Islands.

The islands have beensettled since at least some time between 30,000 and 28,800 BC, with later wavesof migrants, notably the Lapita people,mixing and producing the modern indigenous Solomon Islanders population. In1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European tovisit them.^[11] Thoughnot named by Mendaña, it is believed that the islands were called "theSolomons" by those who later received word of his voyage andmapped his discovery.^[12] Mendañareturned decades later, in 1595, and another Spanish expedition, led byPortuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, visited theSolomons in 1606.

In June 1893, Captain Herbert Gibson of HMS Curacoa declared thesouthern Solomon Islands a British protectorate.^[13][14] During WorldWar II, the Solomon Islands campaign (1942–1945)saw fierce fighting between the United States, British Imperial forces, andthe Empire of Japan, including the Battle of Guadalcanal.

The official name of thethen-British administration was changed from the "British Solomon Islands Protectorate"to "The Solomon Islands" in 1975, and self-government was achievedthe following year. Independence was obtained, and the name changed to just"Solomon Islands" (without the definitearticle), in 1978. At independence, Solomon Islands became a constitutional monarchy. The King of Solomon Islands is CharlesIII, who is represented in the country by a governor-general appointedon the advice of the prime minister.

Name

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In 1568, the Spanishnavigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European tovisit the Solomon Islands archipelago but did not name the archipelago at thattime, only certain individual islands. Though not named by Mendaña, the islandswere subsequently referred to as Islas Salomón (SolomonIslands) by others following reports of his voyage optimistically conflatedwith stories of the wealthy biblical King Solomon, believing them to be the Bible-mentioned cityof Ophir.^[11][15][16] Duringmost of the colonial period, the territory's official name was the"British Solomon Islands Protectorate" until independence in 1978,when it was changed to "Solomon Islands" as defined in theConstitution of Solomon Islands and as a Commonwealth realm under this name.^[17][18]

The definite article,"the", has not been part of the country's official name sinceindependence but remains for all references to the area pre-independence and issometimes used, both within and outside the country. Colloquially, the islandsare referred to simply as "the Solomons".^[8]

History

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Main article: History of Solomon Islands

Prehistory

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The Solomons were firstsettled by people coming from the BismarckIslands and New Guinea during the Pleistocene erac. 30,000–28,000 BC, based on archaeological evidence found at Kilu Cave on BukaIsland in the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, PapuaNew Guinea.^[19][20] Atthis point sea levels were lower and Buka and Bougainville were physicallyjoined to the southern Solomons in one landmass ("GreaterBougainville"), though it is unclear precisely how far south these earlysettlers spread as no other archaeological sites from this period have beenfound.^[19] Assea levels rose as the Ice Age ended c. 4000–3500 BC, the GreaterBougainville landmass split into the numerous islands that exist today.^[19][21] Evidenceof later human settlements dating to c. 4500–2500 BC have been found at PohaCave and Vatuluma Posovi Cave on Guadalcanal.^[19] Theethnic identity of these early peoples is unclear, though it is thought thatthe speakers of the Central Solomon languages (aself-contained language family unrelated to other languages spoken in theSolomons) likely represent the descendants of these earlier settlers.

From c. 1200–800 BC Austronesian Lapita peoplebegan arriving from the Bismarcks with their characteristic ceramics.^[19][22] Evidencefor their presence has been found across the Solomon archipelago, as well atthe Santa Cruz Islands in the south-east, withdifferent islands being settled at different times.^[19] Linguisticand genetic evidence suggests that the Lapita people "leap-frogged"the already inhabited main Solomon Islands and settled first on the Santa Cruzgroup, with later back-migrations bringing their culture to the main group.^[23][24] Thesepeoples mixed with the native Solomon Islanders and over time their languagesbecame dominant, with most of the 60–70 languages spoken there belonging tothe Oceanic branch of the Austronesian language family.^[25] Then,as now, communities tended to exist in small villages practising subsistenceagriculture, though extensive inter-island trade networks existed.^[19] Numerousancient burial sites and other evidence of permanent settlements have beenfound from the period AD 1000–1500 throughout the islands, one of the mostprominent examples being the Roviana cultural complex centred on the islandsoff the southern coast of NewGeorgia, where a large number of megalithic shrines and other structureswere constructed in the 13th century.^[26] Thepeople of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism beforethe arrival of the Europeans.^[27][28]

Arrival of Europeans(1568–1886)

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Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira (1542–1595),the first European to sight the Solomons

The first European to visitthe islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, sailingfrom Peru in 1568.^[29] Landingon Santa Isabel on 7 February, Mendañaexplored several of the other islands including Makira,Guadalcanal and Malaita.^[29][30][31] Relationswith the native Solomon Islanders were initially cordial, although they oftensoured as time went by.^[29] Asa result, Mendaña returned to Peru in August 1568.^[29] Hereturned to the Solomons with a larger crew on a second voyage in 1595, aimingto colonise the islands.^[29] Theylanded on Nendö inthe Santa Cruz Islands and established a small settlement at Gracioso Bay.^[29] However,the settlement failed due to poor relations with the native peoples andepidemics of disease amongst the Spanish which caused numerous deaths, withMendaña himself dying in October.^[29][31] Thenew commander Pedro Fernandes de Queirós thusdecided to abandon the settlement and they sailed north to the Spanishterritory of the Philippines.^[29] Queiróslater returned to the area in 1606, where he sighted Tikopia and Taumako, thoughthis voyage was primarily to Vanuatu in the search of TerraAustralis.^[31][32]

Save for AbelTasman's sighting of the remote OntongJava Atoll in 1648, no European sailed to the Solomons again until1767, when the British explorer PhilipCarteret sailed by the Santa Cruz Islands, Malaita and, continuingfurther north, Bougainville and the Bismarck Islands.^[21][31] Frenchexplorers also reached the Solomons, with Louis Antoine de Bougainville naming Choiseul in1768 and Jean-François de Surville exploringthe islands in 1769.^[21] In1788 John Shortland, captaining asupply ship for Britain's new Australian colonyat BotanyBay, sighted the Treasury and ShortlandIslands.^[21][31] Thatsame year the French explorer Jean-François de LaPérouse was wrecked on Vanikoro; arescue expedition led by Bruni d'Entrecasteaux sailed to Vanikorobut found no trace of La Pérouse.^[21][33][34] Thefate of La Pérouse was not confirmed until 1826, when the Englishmerchant Peter Dillon visited Tikopia and discovered itemsbelonging to La Pérouse in the possession of the local people, confirmed by thesubsequent voyage of Jules Dumont d'Urville in 1828.^[31][35]

Some of the earliest regularforeign visitors to the islands were whaling vesselsfrom Britain, the United States and Australia.^[31][36] Theycame for food, wood and water from late in the 18th century, establishing atrading relationship with the Solomon Islanders and later taking aboardislanders to serve as crewmen on their ships.^[37] Relationsbetween the islanders and visiting seamen were not always good and sometimesthere was bloodshed.^[31][38] Aknock-on effect of the greater European contact was the spread of diseases towhich local peoples had no immunity, as well as a shift in the balance of powerbetween coastal groups, who had access to European weapons and technology, andinland groups who did not.^[31] Inthe second half of the 1800s more traders arrived seeking turtleshells, seacucumbers, copra and sandalwood,occasionally establishing semi-permanent trading stations.^[31] However,initial attempts at more long-term settlement, such as BenjaminBoyd's colony on Guadalcanal in 1851, were unsuccessful.^[31][39]

Beginning in the 1840s, andaccelerating in the 1860s, islanders began to be recruited (or often kidnapped)as labourers for the colonies in Australia, Fiji and Samoa in a process knownas "blackbirding".^[31][40] Conditionsfor workers were often poor and exploitative, and local islanders often violently attackedany Europeans who appeared on their island.^[31] Theblackbird trade was chronicled by prominent Western writers, such as Joe Melvin and JackLondon.^[41][42] Christianmissionaries also began visiting the Solomons from the 1840s, beginning with anattempt by French Catholics under Jean-Baptiste Epalle to establish a missionon Santa Isabel, which was abandoned after Epalle was killed by islanders in1845.^[21][40] Anglicanmissionaries began arriving from the 1850s, followed by other denominations,over time gaining a large number of converts.^[43]

Colonial period (1886–1978)

[edit]

Main articles: British Solomon Islands, British Western Pacific Territories,and German New Guinea

Establishment of colonialrule

[edit]

In 1884, Germany annexednortheast New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago and, in 1886, extended itsrule over the North Solomon Islands, covering Bougainville,Buka, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, the Shortlands and Ontong Java atoll.^[44] In1886 Germany and Britain confirmed this arrangement, with the British gaining a"sphere of influence" over the southern Solomons.^[45] Germanypaid little attention to the islands, with German authorities based in NewGuinea not even visiting the area until 1888.^[45] TheGerman presence, along with pressure from the missionaries to rein in theexcesses of the coercive labour recruitment practices, known as blackbirding,prompted the British to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons inMarch 1893, initially encompassing New Georgia, Malaita, Guadalcanal, Makira,Mono Island and the central Nggela Islands.^[13][46]

In April 1896, colonialofficial Charles Morris Woodford was appointedas the British Acting Deputy Commissioner, and he was confirmed in his positionin the following year. The Colonial Office appointed Woodford as the ResidentCommissioner in the Solomon Islands on 17 February 1897. He was directed to controlthe coercive labour recruitment practices, known as blackbirding,operating in the Solomon Island waters and to stop the illegal trade infirearms.^[13][46] Woodfordset up an administrative headquarters on the small island of Tulagi, and in1898 and 1899 the Rennell and Bellona Islands, Sikaiana, theSanta Cruz Islands and outlying islands such as Anuta, Fataka, Temotu andTikopia were added to the protectorate.^[46][47] In1900, under the terms of the Tripartite Convention of 1899, Germany cededthe Northern Solomon to Britain, minus Buka and Bougainville, the latterbecoming part of German New Guinea despite geographicallybelonging to the Solomons archipelago.^[40]

Woodford's underfundedadministration struggled to maintain law and order on the remote colony.^[13] Fromthe late 1890s until the early 1900s, there were numerous instances of Europeanmerchants and colonists being killed by islanders; the British response was todeploy Royal Navy warships to launch punitive expeditions against the villageswhich were responsible for the murders.^[13] Arthur Mahaffy was appointed at theDeputy Commissioner in January 1898.^[48][47] Hewas based in Gizo, his duties included suppressing headhunting in NewGeorgia and neighbouring islands.^[47]

The British colonialgovernment attempted to encourage the establishment of plantations bycolonists; however, by 1902, there were only about 80 European colonistsresiding on the islands.^[49] Attemptsat economic development met with mixed results, though Levers Pacific Plantations Ltd., asubsidiary of Lever Brothers, managed to establish a profitablecopra plantation industry which employed many islanders.^[49] Smallscale mining and logging industries were also developed.^[50][51] However,the colony remained something of a backwater, with education, medical and othersocial services being under the administration of the missionaries.^[40] Violencealso continued, most notably with the murder ofcolonial administrator WilliamR. Bell by Basiana of the Kwaiopeople on Malaita in 1927, as Bell attempted to enforce an unpopularhead tax. Several Kwaio were killed in a retaliatory raid, and Basiana and hisaccomplices executed.^[52]

World War II

[edit]

Main articles: Solomon Islands campaign and Japanese occupation of theSolomon Islands

From 1942 until the end of1943, the Solomon Islands were the scene of several major land, sea, and airbattles between the Allies and the JapaneseEmpire's armed forces.^[53] Followingthe Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, war wasdeclared between Japan and the Allied Powers, and the Japanese, seeking toprotect their southern flank, invaded South-East Asia and New Guinea. In May1942 the Japanese launched OperationMo, occupying Tulagi and most of thewestern Solomon Islands, including Guadalcanal where they began work on anairstrip.^[54] TheBritish administration had already relocated to Auki, Malaita and mostof the European population had been evacuated to Australia.^[54] TheAllies counter-invaded Guadalcanal in August1942, followed by the New Georgia campaign in 1943, both ofwhich were turning points in the PacificWar, stopping and then countering the Japanese advance.^[53] Theconflict resulted in hundreds of thousands of Allied, Japanese and civiliandeaths, as well an immense destruction across the islands. The Solomon IslandsCampaign cost the Allies approximately 7,100 men, 29 ships, and 615 aircraft.The Japanese lost 31,000 men, 38 ships, and 683 aircraft. ^[53]

Coastwatchers fromthe Solomon Islands played a major role in providing intelligence and rescuingother Allied servicemen.^[54] U.S.Admiral William Halsey, the commander of Allied forcesduring the Battle for Guadalcanal, recognised the coastwatchers' contributionsby stating "The coastwatchers saved Guadalcanal and Guadalcanal saved theSouth Pacific."^[55] Inaddition around 3,200 men served in the Solomon Islands Labour Corps andsome 6,000 enlisted in the British SolomonIslands Protectorate Defence Force, with their exposure to the Americansleading to several social and political transformations.^[56] Forexample, the Americans had extensively developed Honiara, withthe capital shifting there from Tulagi in 1952, and the Pijinlanguage was heavily influenced by the communication between Americansand the Islands inhabitants.^[57]

Main articles: Solomon Islands campaign and Battle of Guadalcanal

Post-war period and thelead-up to independence

[edit]

In 1943–44 the Malaita-basedchief Aliki Nono'ohimae had founded the MaasinaRule movement (aka the Native Council Movement, literally"Brotherhood Rule"), and was later joined by another chief, Hoasihau.^[58] Theiraims were to improve the economic well-being of native Solomon Islanders, gaingreater autonomy and to act as a liaison between Islanders and the colonialadministration.^[40][59] Themovement was especially popular with ex-Labour Corp members and after the warits numbers swelled, with the movement spreading to other islands.^[59] Alarmedat the growth of the movement, the British launched "OperationDe-Louse" in 1947–8 and arrested most of the Maasina leaders.^[59][58] Malaitansthen organised a campaign of civil disobedience, prompting mass arrests.^[58] In1950 a new Resident Commissioner, Henry Gregory-Smith, arrived and released theleaders of the movement, though the disobedience campaign continued.^[58] In1952 new High Commissioner (later Governor) Robert Stanley met withleaders of the movement and agreed to the creation of an island council.^[58][60] Inlate 1952 Stanley formally moved the capital of the territory to Honiara.^[61] Inthe early 1950s the possibility of transferring sovereignty of the islands toAustralia was discussed by the British and Australian governments; however, theAustralians were reluctant to accept the financial burden of administering theterritory and the idea was shelved.^[62][63]

With decolonisation sweepingthe colonial world, and Britain no longer willing (or able) to bear thefinancial burdens of the Empire, the colonial authorities sought to prepare theSolomons for self-governance. Appointed Executive and Legislative Councils wereestablished in 1960, with a degree of elected Solomon Islander representationintroduced in 1964 and then extended in 1967.^[40][64][65] Anew constitution was drawn up in 1970 which merged the two Councils intoone Governing Council, thoughthe British Governor still retained extensive powers.^[40][66] Discontentwith this prompted the creation of a new constitution in 1974 which reducedmuch of the Governor's remaining powers and created the post of Chief Minister,first held by Solomon Mamaloni.^[40][67] Fullself-government for the territory was achieved in 1976, a year after theindependence of neighbouring Papua New Guinea from Australia.^[40] Meanwhile,discontent grew in the Western islands, with many fearing marginalisation infuture a Honiara- or Malaita-dominated state, prompting the formation of theWestern Breakaway Movement.^[67] Aconference held in London in 1977 agreed that the Solomons would gain fullindependence the following year.^[67] Underthe terms of the Solomon Islands Act 1978 the countrywas annexed to Her Majesty's dominions and granted independence on 7July 1978. The first prime minister was Sir PeterKenilorea of the Solomon Islands United Party (SIUP),with Elizabeth II becoming Queen of Solomon Islands, representedlocally by a Governor General.

Independence era(1978–present)

[edit]

Early post-independenceyears

[edit]

Peter Kenilorea went on towin the 1980 Solomon Islands generalelection, serving as PM until 1981, when he was replaced by SolomonMamaloni of the People's Alliance Party (PAP)after a no confidence vote.^[68] Mamalonicreated the Central Bank and national airline, and pushed for greater autonomyfor individual islands of the country.^[69] Keniloreareturned to power after winning the 1984 election, though hissecond term lasted only two years before he was replaced by EzekielAlebua following allegations of misuse of French aid money.^[70][71] In1986 the Solomons helped found the Melanesian Spearhead Group, aimed atfostering cooperation and trade in the region.^[72] Afterwinning the 1989 election Mamaloni and the PAP returned topower, with Mamaloni dominating Solomon Islands politics from the early to mid1990s (save for the one year Premiership of Francis Billy Hilly). Mamaloni made efforts tomake the Solomons a republic; however, these were unsuccessful.^[69] Healso had to deal with the effects of the conflict in neighbouring Bougainvillewhich broke out in 1988, causing many refugees to flee to the Solomons.^[73] Tensionsarose with Papua New Guinea as PNG forces frequently entered Solomons territoryin the pursuit of rebels.^[73] Thesituation calmed down and relations improved following the end of the conflictin 1998. Meanwhile, the country's financial situation continued to deteriorate,with much of the budget coming from the logging industry, often conducted at anunsustainable rate, not helped by Mamaloni's creation of a 'discretionary fund'for use by politicians, which fostered fraud and corruption.^[69] Discontentwith his rule led to a split in the PAP, and Mamaloni lost the 1993 election to BillyHilly, though Hilly was later sacked by the Governor-General after a number ofdefections caused him to lose his majority, allowing Mamaloni to return topower in 1994, where he remained until 1997.^[69] Excessivelogging, government corruption and unsustainable levels of public spendingcontinued to grow, and public discontent caused Mamaloni to lose the 1997 election.^[69][74] Thenew prime minister, Bartholomew Ulufa'alu of the Solomon Islands Liberal Party,attempted to enact economic reforms; however, his premiership soon becameengulfed in a serious ethnic conflict known as "The Tensions".^[75]

Ethnic violence (1998–2003)

[edit]

Commonly referred toas the tensions or the ethnic tension, the initialcivil unrest was mainly characterised by fighting between the Isatabu Freedom Movement (IFM, alsoknown as the Guadalcanal Revolutionary Army and the Isatabu Freedom Fighters)and the Malaita Eagle Force (as well as the MarauEagle Force).^[76] Formany years people from the island of Malaita had been migrating to Honiara andGuadalcanal, attracted primarily by the greater economic opportunitiesavailable there.^[77] Thelarge influx caused tensions with native Guadalcanal islanders (known asGuales), and in late 1998 the IFM was formed and began a campaign ofintimidation and violence towards Malaitan settlers.^[76][74] Thousandsof Malaitans subsequently fled back to Malaita or to Honiara, and in mid-1999the Malaita Eagle Force (MEF) was established to protect Malaitans onGuadalcanal.^[74][76] Inlate 1999, after several failed attempts at brokering a peace deal, PrimeMinister Bartholomew Ulufa'alu declared a four-month state of emergency, andalso requested assistance from Australia and New Zealand, but his appeal wasrejected.^[76][74] Meanwhile,law and order on Guadalcanal collapsed, with an ethnically divided policeunable to assert authority and many of their weapons depots being raided by themilitias; by this point the MEF controlled Honiara with the IFM controlling therest of Guadalacanal.^[77][74]

In April 2003, sevenChristian brothers – Brother Robin Lindsay andhis companions – were killed on the WeatherCoast of Guadalcanal by the rebel leader HaroldKeke. Six had gone in search of their Brother Nathaniel, who it turns outhad already been tortured and killed. During the tensions Nathaniel hadbefriended the militant group but Harold Keke accused him of being a governmentspy and he was beaten to death while singing hymns.^[78] Theyare commemorated by the church on 24 April.

On 5 June 2000 Ulufa'alu waskidnapped by the MEF who felt that, although he was a Malaitan, he was notdoing enough to protect their interests.^[74] Ulufa'alusubsequently resigned in exchange for his release.^[76] ManassehSogavare, who had earlier been Finance Minister in Ulufa'alu's governmentbut had subsequently joined the opposition, was elected as prime minister by23–21 over the Rev. Leslie Boseto. However, Sogavare's election wasimmediately shrouded in controversy because six MPs (thought to be supportersof Boseto) were unable to attend parliament for the crucial vote.^[79] On15 October 2000 the Townsville Peace Agreement wassigned by the MEF, elements of the IFM, and the Solomon Islands Government.^[80][76] Thiswas closely followed by the Marau Peace agreement in February 2001, signed bythe Marau Eagle Force, the IFM, the Guadalcanal Provincial Government, and theSolomon Islands Government.^[76] However,a key Guale militant leader, HaroldKeke, refused to sign the agreement, causing a split with the Guale groups.^[77] Subsequently,Guale signatories to the agreement led by Andrew Te'e joined with theMalaitan-dominated police to form the 'Joint Operations Force'.^[77] Duringthe next two years the conflict moved to the remote Weathercoast region ofsouthern Guadalcanal as the Joint Operations unsuccessfully attempted tocapture Keke and his group.^[76]

By early 2001 the economyhad collapsed and the government was bankrupt.^[74] New elections in December2001 brought Allan Kemakeza into the Prime Minister's chair,with the support of his People's Alliance Party and the Association ofIndependent Members. Law and order deteriorated as the nature of the conflictshifted: there was continuing violence on the Weathercoast, whilst militants inHoniara increasingly turned their attention to crime, extortion and banditry.^[77] TheDepartment of Finance would often be surrounded by armed men when funding wasdue to arrive. In December 2002, Finance Minister LaurieChan resigned after being forced at gunpoint to sign a cheque made outto some of the militants.^{[citation needed]} Conflictalso broke out in Western Province between locals and Malaitan settlers.^{[citation needed]} Renegademembers of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA)were invited in as a protection force but ended up causing as much trouble asthey prevented.^[77] Theprevailing atmosphere of lawlessness, widespread extortion, and ineffectivepolice prompted a formal request by the Solomon Islands Government for outsidehelp; the request was unanimously supported in Parliament.^[77]

In July 2003, Australian andPacific Islands police and troops arrived in Solomon Islands under the auspicesof the Australian-led Regional AssistanceMission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI).^[76] Asizeable international security contingent of 2,200 police and troops, led byAustralia and New Zealand, and with representatives from about 15 other Pacificnations, began arriving the next month under Operation Helpem Fren.^[77] Thesituation improved dramatically, with violence ending and Harold Kekesurrendering to the force.^[81] Some200 people had been killed in the conflict.^[77] Sincethis time some commentators have considered the country a failedstate, with the nation having failed to build an inclusive nationalidentity capable of overriding local island and ethnic loyalties.^[74][82] However,other academics argue that, rather than being a 'failed state', it is anunformed state: a state that never consolidated even after decades ofindependence.^[83] Furthermore,some scholars, such Kabutaulaka (2001) and Dinnen (2002) argue that the 'ethnicconflict' label is an oversimplification.^[84]

Post-conflict era

[edit]

Kemakeza remained in officeuntil April 2006, when he lost the 2006 Solomon Islands generalelection and Snyder Rini became PM. However, allegations thatRini had used bribes from Chinese businessmen to buy the votes of members ofParliament led to mass rioting in the capital Honiara,concentrated on the city's Chinatown area. A deep underlying resentment againstthe minority Chinese business community led to much of Chinatown inthe city being destroyed.^[85] Tensionswere also increased by the belief that large sums of money were being exportedto China. China sent chartered aircraft to evacuate hundreds of Chinese whofled to avoid the riots.^{[citation needed]} Evacuationof Australian and British citizens was on a much smaller scale.^{[citation needed]} AdditionalAustralian, New Zealand and Fijian police and troops were dispatched to try toquell the unrest. Rini eventually resigned before facing a motion ofno-confidence in Parliament, and Parliament elected ManassehSogavare as prime minister.^[86][87]

Sogavare struggled to asserthis authority and was also hostile to the Australian presence in the country;after one failed attempt, he was removed in a no confidence vote in 2007 andreplaced by Derek Sikua of the Solomon Islands Liberal Party.^[88] In2008 a Truth andReconciliation Commission was established to examine and help heal thewounds of the 'tension' years.^[89][90] Sikualost the 2010 Solomon Islands generalelection to Danny Philip, though after a vote of no confidence inhim following allegations of corruption, Philip was ousted and replacedby Gordon Darcy Lilo.^[91][92] Sogavarereturned to power after the 2014 election, and oversawthe withdrawal of RAMSI forces from the country in 2017.^[77] Sogavarewas ousted in a no confidence vote in 2017, which saw RickHouenipwela come to power; however, Sogavare returned to the primeministership after winning the 2019 election, sparkingrioting in Honiara.^[93][94] In2019 Sogavare announced that the Solomons would be switching recognition fromTaiwan to China.^[95][96]

On 25 November 2019, SolomonIslands launched a national oceanpolicy to achieve the sustainable development and use of the ocean forthe benefit of the people of the island nation.

In November 2021, there was mass rioting andunrest.^[97] TheSolomon Islands Government requested assistance from Australia under the 2017Bilateral Security Treaty and Australia provided a deployment of Australian Federal Police and Defence Forces.^[98]

In March 2022, SolomonIslands signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU)on policing cooperation with China and was also reported to be in the processof concluding a security agreement with China. The agreement with China couldallow an ongoing Chinese military and naval presence in the Solomons. Aspokesperson for Australia's Department of Foreign Affairsand Trade said that, while "Pacific Island nations have the rightto make sovereign decisions", Australia "would be concerned by anyactions that destabilise the security of our region".^[99][100] Thereare similar concerns in New Zealand and the United States.^[101] Chinadonated a shipment of replica firearms to the Solomon Islands police fortraining.^[102] SolomonIslands and China signed a security co-operation agreement in April to promotesocial stability and long-term peace and security in Solomon Islands.^[103] TheBBC reported that, according to a leaked draft of the agreement verified by theAustralian government, Beijing could deploy forces to Solomon Islands "toassist in maintaining social order". Prime Minister ManassehSogavare said the pact would not "undermine peace andharmony" in the region and was aimed at protecting the Solomon's internalsecurity situation. China confirmed that the social-order clause had beenmaintained in the final agreement.^[104]

In February 2023, further protests broke out afterthe Premier of Malaita Province DanielSuidani was removed from office after a vote of no confidence from theprovincial legislature.^[105][106] InMay 2024, Jeremiah Manele was elected as Solomon Islandsnew prime minister to succeed Manasseh Sogavare.^[107]

Politics

[edit]

Main article: Politics of Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands is a constitutional monarchy and hasa parliamentary system of government.As King of Solomon Islands, CharlesIII is head of state; he is represented by the Governor-General who ischosen by the Parliament for a five-year term. There is a unicameral parliamentof 50 members, elected for four-year terms. However, Parliament may bedissolved by majority vote of its members before the completion of its term.

Parliamentary representationis based on single-member constituencies. Suffrage is universal for citizensover age 21.^[108] The head of government is the prime minister, who is elected byParliament and chooses the cabinet. Each ministry is headed by acabinet member, who is assisted by a permanent secretary, a career public servantwho directs the staff of the ministry.

Solomon Islands governmentsare characterised by weak political parties (see List of political partiesin Solomon Islands) and highly unstable parliamentary coalitions. They aresubject to frequent votes of no confidence, leading to frequentchanges in government leadership and cabinet appointments.

Land ownership is reservedfor Solomon Islanders. The law provides that resident expatriates, such as theChinese and Kiribati, may obtain citizenship through naturalisation.Land generally is still held on a family or village basis and may be handed downfrom mother or father according to local custom. The islanders arereluctant to provide land for nontraditional economic undertakings, and thishas resulted in continual disputes over land ownership.

No military forces aremaintained by Solomon Islands(Since 1978) although a police force of nearly 500includes a border protection unit. The police also are responsible for fireservice, disaster relief, and maritime surveillance. Thepolice force is headed by a commissioner, appointed by the governor-general andresponsible to the prime minister. On 27 December2006, the Solomon Islands government took steps to prevent the country's Australian police chief from returningto the Pacific nation. On 12 January 2007, Australia replacedits top diplomat expelled from Solomon Islands for political interference in aconciliatory move aimed at easing a four-month dispute between the twocountries.

On 13 December 2007, PrimeMinister Manasseh Sogavare was toppled by a vote ofno confidence in Parliament,^[109] followingthe defection of five ministers to the opposition. It was the first time aprime minister had lost office in this way in Solomon Islands. On 20 December,the parliament elected theopposition's candidate (and former Minister for Education) DerekSikua as prime minister, in a vote of 32 to 15.^[110][111]

In April 2019, ManassehSogavare was elected as prime minister for fourth time, causing protests anddemonstrations against the decision.^[112]

Judiciary

[edit]

Main article: Judiciary of Solomon Islands

The Governor-Generalappoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the PrimeMinister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Governor-General appoints theother justices with the advice of a judicial commission. The current ChiefJustice is Sir Albert Palmer.

Since March 2014 JusticeEdwin Goldsbrough has served as the President of the Court of Appeal forSolomon Islands. Justice Goldsbrough has previously served a five-year term asa Judge of the High Court of Solomon Islands (2006–2011). Justice Edwin Goldsbroughthen served as the Chief Justice of the Turks and Caicos Islands.^[113]

Foreign relations

[edit]

Main article: Foreign relations of SolomonIslands

Solomon Islands is a memberof the United Nations, Interpol, Commonwealth of Nations, Pacific Islands Forum, PacificCommunity, International Monetary Fund, andthe African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries (Lomé Convention).

Until September 2019, it wasone of the few countries to recognise the Republic of China(Taiwan) and maintain formal diplomatic relations with it. Therelationship was terminated in September 2019 by Solomon Islands, whichswitched recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC).^[114] Relationswith Papua New Guinea, which had become strained because of an influx ofrefugees from the Bougainville rebellion and attacks on thenorthern islands of Solomon Islands by elements pursuing Bougainvillean rebels, have been repaired. A1998 peace accord on Bougainville removed the armed threat, and the two nationsregularised border operations in a 2004 agreement.^[115] Since2022, ties with China have beenrapidly increasing, with Solomon Islands signing a security pact that allowsthe country to call for Chinese security forces to quell unrest.^[116][117]

In March 2017, at the 34thregular session of the UN Human Rights Council, Vanuatu madea joint statement on behalf of Solomon Islands and some other Pacific nationsraising human rights violations in the Western New Guinea, which claimed by InternationalParliamentarians for West Papua (IPWP) that West Papua has beenoccupied by Indonesia since 1963,^[118] andrequested that the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights produce a report.^[119][120] Indonesiarejected Vanuatu's allegations, replying that Vanuatu does not represent thepeople of Papua and it should "stop fantasizing" that it does.^[121][120] Morethan 100,000 Papuans have died during a 50-year Papuaconflict.^[122] InSeptember 2017, at the 72ndSession of the UN General Assembly, the Prime Ministers of Solomon Islands,Tuvalu and Vanuatu once again raised human rights abuses in Indonesian-occupiedWest Papua.^[123]

Military

[edit]

Although the locallyrecruited British SolomonIslands Protectorate Defence Force was part of Allied Forces taking part in fightingin the Solomons during the Second World War, the country has not had anyregular military forces since independence. The various paramilitary elementsof the Royal Solomon Islands Police Force (RSIPF)were disbanded and disarmed in 2003 following the intervention of the Regional AssistanceMission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI). RAMSI had a small militarydetachment headed by an Australian commander with responsibilities forassisting the police element of RAMSI in internal and external security. TheRSIPF still operates two Pacific class patrol boats (RSIPV Auki and RSIPV Lata),which constitute the de facto navy of Solomon Islands.

In the long term, it isanticipated that the RSIPF will resume the defence role of the country. Thepolice force is headed by a commissioner, appointed by the Governor-General andresponsible to the Minister of Police, National Security & CorrectionalServices.

The police budget of SolomonIslands has been strained due to a four-year civil war. Following CycloneZoe's strike on the islands of Tikopia and Anuta inDecember 2002, Australia had to provide the Solomon Islands governmentwith SI$200,000 (A$50,000)for fuel and supplies for the patrol boat Lata to sail withrelief supplies. (Part of the work of RAMSI includes assisting the SolomonIslands government to stabilise its budget.)

Administrative divisions

[edit]

Main article: Provinces of Solomon Islands

For local government, thecountry is divided into ten administrative areas, of which nine are provincesadministered by elected provincial assemblies and the tenth is the capitalHoniara, administered by the Honiara Town Council.

1.         ^ excluding the Capital Territory of Honiara

Islands by province

[edit]

See also: Human rights in Solomon Islands

There are human rightsconcerns and issues in regards to education, water/water security, sanitation,gender equality, and domestic violence aswell as other.

Homosexuality is illegal inSolomon Islands.^[124]

Geography

[edit]

Main article: Geography of Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands is an islandnation that lies east of Papua New Guinea and consists of six major islands and over 900smaller islands. The major part of the nation of Solomon Islands coversmany of the mountainous volcanicislands of the Solomon Islands archipelago, whichincludes Choiseul, the ShortlandIslands, the New Georgia Islands, Santa Isabel, the RussellIslands, the Florida Islands, Tulagi, Malaita, Maramasike, Ulawa, Owaraha (SantaAna), Makira (SanCristobal), and the main island of Guadalcanal.Solomon Islands also includes smaller, isolated low atolls andvolcanic islands such as Sikaiana, RennellIsland, Bellona Island, the Santa Cruz Islands and tiny outliers suchas Tikopia, Anuta, and Fatutaka.Although Bougainville is the largest island in theSolomon Islands archipelago it is politically an autonomous region of PapuaNew Guinea and does not form part of the nation of Solomon Islands.

The country's islands liebetween latitudes 5° and 13°S, and longitudes 155° and 169°E. The distance between the westernmost andeasternmost islands is about 1,500 kilometres (930 mi). The Santa CruzIslands (of which Tikopia is part) are situated north of Vanuatu andare especially isolated at more than 200 kilometres (120 mi) from theother islands.

Climate

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The islands'ocean-equatorial climate is extremely humid throughout the year, with a meantemperature of 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) and few extremes of temperature orweather. June through August is the cooler period. Though seasons are notpronounced, the northwesterly winds of November through April bring morefrequent rainfall and occasional squalls or cyclones. Theannual rainfall is about 3,050 millimetres (120 in). According tothe WorldRiskReport 2021, the island state rankssecond among the countries with the highest disaster risk worldwide.^[125]

In 2023 the governments ofSolomon Islands and other island states at risk from climate change (Fiji, Niue, Tuvalu, Tonga and Vanuatu)launched the "Port Vila Call for a Just Transition to a Fossil Fuel FreePacific", calling for the phaseout of fossilfuels and the 'rapid and justtransition' to renewable energy and strengthening environmentallaw including introducing the crime of ecocide.^{[126][127][128]}

Ecology

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See also: Protected areas of Solomon Islands and Coral reefs of the Solomon Islands

The Solomon Islands have thesixth highest percentage of forest cover in the world.

The Solomon Islands archipelago ispart of two distinct terrestrial ecoregions. Most of the islandsare part of the Solomon Islands rain forests ecoregion,which also includes the islands of Bougainville and Buka; these forests havecome under pressure from forestry activities. The Santa Cruz Islands are partof the Vanuatu rain forests ecoregion, togetherwith the neighbouring archipelago of Vanuatu.^[130] Thecountry had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index meanscore of 7.19/10, ranking it 48th globally out of 172 countries.^[131] Soilquality ranges from extremely rich volcanic (there are volcanoes withvarying degrees of activity on some of the larger islands) to relativelyinfertile limestone. More than 230 varieties of orchids and other tropicalflowers brighten the landscape. Mammals are scarce on the islands, with theonly terrestrial mammals being bats and small rodents. Birds and reptiles,however, are abundant.^{[citation needed]}

The islands contain severalactive and dormant volcanoes. The Tinakula and Kavachi volcanoesare the most active.

On the southern sideof Vangunu Island, the forests around the tinycommunity of Zaira are unique, providing habitat for at least three vulnerable species of animals. The 200human inhabitants of the area have been trying to get the forests declared aprotected area, so that logging and mining cannot disturb and pollute thepristine forests and coastline.^[132]

The baseline survey ofmarine biodiversity in the Solomon Islands that was carried out in 2004,^[133] found474 species of corals in the Solomons as well as nine species which could benew to science. This is the second highest diversity of corals in the World,second only to the Raja Ampat Islands in eastern Indonesia.^[134]

Water and sanitation

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See also: Human rights in Solomon Islands

Scarcity of fresh watersources and lack of sanitation has been a constant challenge facing SolomonIslands. Reducing the number of those living without access to fresh water andsanitation by half was one of the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) implementedby the United Nations through Goal 7, to ensure environmental sustainability.^[135] Thoughthe islands generally have access to fresh water sources, it is typically onlyavailable in the state's capital of Honiara,^[135] andit is not guaranteed all year long. According to a UNICEF report, the capital'spoorest communities do not have access to adequate places to relieve theirwaste, and an estimated 70% Solomon Island schools have no access to safe andclean water for drinking, washing and relieving of waste.^[135] Lackof safe drinking water in school-age children results in high risks ofcontracting fatal diseases such as cholera and typhoid.^[136] Thenumber of Solomon Islanders living with piped drinking water has beendecreasing since 2011, while those living with non-piped water increasedbetween 2000 and 2010. Nevertheless, one improvement is that those living withnon-piped water has been decreasing consistently since 2011.^[137]

In addition, the SolomonIslands Second Rural Development Program, enacted in 2014 and active until2020, has been working to deliver competent infrastructure and other vitalservices to rural areas and villages of Solomon Islands,^[138] whichsuffer the most from lack of safe drinking water and proper sanitation. Throughimproved infrastructure, services and resources, the program has alsoencouraged farmers and other agricultural sectors, through community-drivenefforts, to connect them to the market, thus promoting economic growth.^[136] Ruralvillages such as Bolava, found in the Western Province of Solomon Islands, havebenefited greatly from the program, with the implementation of water tanks andrain catchment and water storage systems.^[136] Notonly has the improved infrastructure increased the quality of life in SolomonIslands, the services are also operated and developed by the community, thuscreating a sense of communal pride and achievement among those previouslyliving in hazardous conditions. The program is funded by various internationaldevelopment actors such as the World Bank, European Union, International Fundfor Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the Australian and Solomon Islandsgovernments.^[136]

Earthquakes

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Main articles: 2007 Solomon Islands earthquake and 2013 Solomon Islands earthquake

On 2 April 2007 at 07:39:56local time (UTC+11)an earthquake with magnitude 8.1 on the M_w scale occurred athypocentre S8.453 E156.957, 349 kilometres (217 mi) northwest of theisland's capital, Honiara and south-east of the capital of Western Province, Gizo, at a depth of 10 km(6.2 miles).^[139] Morethan 44 aftershocks with magnitude 5.0 or greater occurred up until 22:00:00UTC, Wednesday, 4 April 2007. A tsunami followedkilling at least 52 people, destroying more than 900 homes and leavingthousands of people homeless.^[140] Landupthrust extended the shoreline of one island, Ranongga, byup to 70 metres (230 ft) exposing many once pristine coral reefs.^[141]

On 6 February 2013, anearthquake with magnitude of 8.0 occurred at epicentre S10.80 E165.11 in theSanta Cruz Islands followed by a tsunami up to 1.5 metres. At least nine peoplewere killed and many houses demolished. The main quake was preceded by a sequenceof earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 6.0.^{[citation needed]}

Economy

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Main article: Economy of Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands' per-capitaGDP of $600 ranks it as a least developed country, and more than 75%of its labour force is engaged in subsistence agriculture and fishing.Most manufactured goods and petroleum products must be imported. Only 3.9% ofthe area of the islands are used for agriculture, and 78.1% are covered byforests making the Solomon Islands the 103rd ranked country covered by forestsworldwide.^{[142][clarification needed]}

The Solomon IslandsGovernment was insolvent by 2002. Since the RAMSI interventionin 2003, the government has recast its budget. It has consolidated andrenegotiated its domestic debt and with Australian backing, is now seeking torenegotiate its foreign obligations. Principal aid donors are Australia, NewZealand, the European Union, Japan, and Taiwan.

Currency

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The Solomon Islands dollar (ISO 4217 code: SBD)was introduced in 1977, replacing the Australian dollar at par. Its symbol is"SI$", but the "SI" prefix may be omitted if there is noconfusion with other currencies also using the dollarsign "$". It is subdivided into 100 cents.Local shell money is still important for traditional andceremonial purposes in certain provinces and, in some remote parts of thecountry, for trade. Shell money was a widely used traditional currency in thePacific Islands; in Solomon Islands, it is mostly manufactured in Malaita and Guadalcanal butcan be bought elsewhere, such as the Honiara Central Market.^[143] The barter systemoften replaces money of any kind in remote areas.

Exports

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Until 1998, when worldprices for tropical timber fell steeply, timber was Solomon Islands' mainexport product, and, in recent years, Solomon Islands forests weredangerously overexploited. In the wake of the ethnic violence inJune 2000, exports of palm oil and gold ceased while exports of timber fell.

Recently,^[when?] SolomonIslands courts have re-approved the export of live dolphins forprofit, most recently to Dubai, United Arab Emirates. This practice was originallystopped by the government in 2004 after international uproar over a shipment of28 live dolphins to Mexico. The move resulted in criticism from both Australia and NewZealand as well as several conservation organisations. As of 2019,rough wood still makes up two-thirds of export^{[citation needed]}.

Agriculture

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In 2017 317,682 tons ofcoconuts were harvested making the country the 18th ranked producer of coconutsworldwide, and 24% of the exports corresponded to copra.^[144] Cocoabeans are mainly grown on the islands Guadalcanal, Makira and Malaita. In 20174,940 tons of cocoa beans were harvested making the Solomon Islands the 27thranked producer of cocoa worldwide.^[145] Growthof production and export of copra and cacao, however, is hampered by old age ofmost coconut and cacao trees. In 2017 285,721 tons of palm oil were produced,making Solomon Islands the 24th ranked producer of palm oil worldwide.^[146]

Other important cash cropsand exports include copra, cacao and palm oil.

For the local market but notfor export many families grow taro (2017: 45,901 tons),^[147] rice(2017: 2,789 tons),^[148] yams (2017:44,940 tons)^[149] andbananas (2017: 313 tons).^[150] Tobacco(2017: 118 tons)^[151] andspices (2017: 217 tons).^[152]

The agriculture on theSolomon Islands is hampered by a very severe lack of agricultural machines.

Mining

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In 1998 gold mining beganat Gold Ridge on Guadalcanal. Mineralsexploration in other areas continued. The islands are rich in undevelopedmineral resources such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold. Negotiations are underway that may lead to the eventualreopening of the Gold Ridge mine which was closed after the riots in 2006.

Rennell Island bauxite mine operatedfrom 2011 to 2021 on Rennell Island, leaving behind serious ecological damageafter multiple spills.^[153][154]

Fisheries

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Solomon Islands' fisheriesalso offer prospects for export and domestic economic expansion. A Japanesejoint venture, Solomon Taiyo Ltd., which operated the only fish cannery in thecountry, closed in mid-2000 as a result of the ethnic disturbances. Though theplant has reopened under local management, the export of tuna has notresumed.

Tourism

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Tourism, particularlydiving, could become an important service industry for Solomon Islands. Tourismgrowth, however, is hampered by lack of infrastructure and transportationlimitations. In 2017, Solomon Islands was visited by 26,000 tourists making thecountry one of the least frequently-visited countries of the world.^[155] TheSolomon Island government hoped to increase the number of tourists up to 30,000by the end of 2019 and up to 60,000 tourists per year by the end of 2025.^[156] In2019 the Solomon Islands were visited by 28,900 tourists and in 2020 by 4,400.^[157]

Energy

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A team of renewable energydevelopers working for the South Pacific AppliedGeoscience Commission (SOPAC) and funded by the Renewable Energy andEnergy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), have developed a scheme thatallows local communities to access renewable energy, such as solar, water andwind power, without the need to raise substantial sums of cash. Under thescheme, islanders who are unable to pay for solar lanterns in cash may payinstead in kind with crops.^[158]

Infrastructure

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Flight connections

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SolomonAirlines connects Honiara International Airport toNadi in Fiji, Port Vila in Vanuatu and Brisbane in Australia aswell as to more than 20 domestic airports in each province of the country. Topromote tourism Solomon Airlines introduced a weekly direct flight connectionbetween Brisbane and Munda in 2019.^[159] VirginAustralia connects Honiara to Brisbane twice a week. Most of thedomestic airports are accessible to small planes only as they have short, grassrunways.

Roads

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The road system in SolomonIslands is insufficient and there are no railways. The most important roadsconnect Honiara to Lambi (58 km; 36 miles) in the western part ofGuadalcanal and to Aola (75 km; 47 miles) in the eastern part.^[160] Thereare few buses and these do not circulate according to a fixed timetable. InHoniara there is no bus terminus. The most important bus stop is in front ofthe Central Market.

Ferries

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Most of the islands can bereached by ferry from Honiara. There is a daily connection from Honiara to Aukivia Tulagi by a high speed catamaran.

Demographics

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Main article: Demographics of Solomon Islands

The total population at theNovember 2019 Census was 721,455. As of 2021, there were 707,851 people inSolomon Islands.^[161][162]

Ethnic groups

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Solomon Islander boys fromHoniara. People with brown or blond hairare quite common among Solomon Islanders without any European admixture,especially among children.

The majority of SolomonIslanders are ethnically Melanesian (95.3%). Polynesian (3.1%)and Micronesian (1.2%) are the two othersignificant groups.^[163] Thereare a few thousand Europeans and a similar number of ethnic Chinese.^[85]

Languages

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Furtherinformation: Languages of Solomon Islands

While English is theofficial language, only 1–2% of the population are able to communicate fluentlyin English. However, an English creole, Solomons Pijin, is a defacto lingua franca of the country spoken by themajority of the population, along with local indigenous languages. Pijin isclosely related to Tok Pisin spoken in Papua New Guinea.

The number of locallanguages listed for Solomon Islands is 74, of which 70 are living languagesand 4 are extinct, according to Ethnologue, Languages of the World.^[164] Western Oceanic languages (predominantlyof the Southeast Solomonic group) are spokenon the central islands. Polynesian languages are spoken on Rennell and Bellona tothe south, Tikopia, Anuta and Fatutaka tothe far east, Sikaiana to the north east, and Luaniua to the north (OntongJava Atoll, also known as LordHowe Atoll). The immigrant population from Kiribati (the i-Kiribati)speak Gilbertese.

Most of the indigenouslanguages are Austronesian languages. The Central Solomon languages suchas Bilua, Lavukaleve, Savosavo and Touo constitutean independent family within Papuanlanguages.^[165]

Religion

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Main article: Religion in Solomon Islands

The religion of SolomonIslands is 92% Christian. The main Christian denominations are: Anglican 35%, Catholic 19%, the South Seas Evangelical Church 17%,the United Church 11%and Seventh-day Adventist 10%. OtherChristian denominations are the Jehovah's Witnesses, the New Apostolic Church(80 churches) and the Church of JesusChrist of Latter-day Saints.

Another 5% adhere toaboriginal beliefs. The remaining 3% adhere to Islam orthe Baháʼí Faith. According to the most recentreports, Islam in Solomon Islands is made upof approximately 350 Muslims,^[166] includingmembers of the Ahmadiyya Islamic community.^[167]

Health

[edit]

See Health in the Solomon Islands

Education

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Education in Solomon Islandsis not compulsory, and only 60 percent of school-age children have access toprimary education.^[168][169] Thereare kindergartens in various places, including the capital, but they are notfree.

From 1990 to 1994, the grossprimary school enrolment rose from 84.5 percent to 96.6 percent.^[168] Primaryschool attendance rates were unavailable for Solomon Islands as of 2001.^[168] Whileenrolment rates indicate a level of commitment to education, they do not alwaysreflect children's participation in school.^[168] TheDepartment of Education and Human Resource Development efforts and plans toexpand educational facilities and increase enrolment. However, these actionshave been hindered by a lack of government funding, misguided teacher trainingprograms, poor co-ordination of programs, and a failure of the government topay teachers.^[168] Thepercentage of the government's budget allocated to education was 9.7 percent in1998, down from 13.2 percent in 1990.^[168] Maleeducational attainment tends to be higher than female educational attainment.^[169] The University of the South Pacific,which has campuses in 12 Pacific island nations, has a campus at Guadalcanal.^[170] Theliteracy rate of the adult population amounted to 84.1% in 2015 (men 88.9%,women 79.23%).^[171]

The Human Rights MeasurementInitiative (HRMI)^[172] findsthat the Solomon Islands is fulfilling only 70.1% of what it should befulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income.^[173] HRMIbreaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primaryeducation and secondary education. While taking into consideration the SolomonIslands' income level, the nation is achieving 94.9% of what should be possiblebased on its resources (income) for primary education but only 45.4% forsecondary education.^[173]

Culture

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Main article: Culture of Solomon Islands

The culture of Solomon Islands reflectsthe extent of the differentiation and diversity among the groups living withinthe Solomon Islands archipelago, whichlies within Melanesia in the PacificOcean, with the peoples distinguished by island, language, topography, andgeography. The cultural area includes the nation state of Solomon Islands andthe Bougainville Island, which is a part of PapuaNew Guinea.^[174] SolomonIslands includes some culturally Polynesian societies which lieoutside the main region of Polynesian influence, known as the Polynesian Triangle. There are seven Polynesian outliers within the SolomonIslands: Anuta, Bellona, OntongJava, Rennell, Sikaiana, Tikopia,and Vaeakau-Taumako. Solomon Islands arts and craftscover a wide range of woven objects, carved wood, stone and shell artefacts instyles specific to different provinces:

Malaitan shell-money,manufactured in the Langa Langa Lagoon, is the traditional currencyused in Malaita andthroughout the Solomon Islands. The money consists of small polished shelldisks which are drilled and placed on strings.^[175] Inthe Solomons Tectus niloticus is harvested, which wastraditionally made into items such as pearl buttons and jewellery.^[176][177]

Gender inequality anddomestic violence

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Solomon Islands has one ofthe highest rates of family and sexual violence (FSV) in the world, with 64% ofwomen aged 15–49 having reported physical and/or sexual abuse by a partner.^[178] Asper a World Health Organization (WHO)report issued in 2011, "the causes of Gender Based Violence (GBV) aremultiple, but it primarily stems from gender inequality and itsmanifestations."^[179] Thereport stated:

"In Solomon Islands,GBV has been largely normalized: 73% of men and 73% of women believe violenceagainst women is justifiable, especially for infidelity and 'disobedience,' aswhen women do 'not live up to the gender roles that society imposes.' Forexample, women who believed they could occasionally refuse sex were four timesmore likely to experience GBV from an intimate partner. Men cited acceptabilityof violence and gender inequality as two main reasons for GBV, and almost allof them reported hitting their female partners as a 'form of discipline,'suggesting that women could improve the situation by '[learning] to obey[them].'"

Another manifestation anddriver of gender inequality in Solomon Islands is the traditional practiceof bride price. Although specific customs vary betweencommunities, paying a bride price is considered similar to a property title,giving men ownership over women. Gender norms of masculinity tend to encouragemen to "control" their wives, often through violence, while womenfelt that bride prices prevented them from leaving men. Another report issuedby the WHO in 2013 painted a similarly grim picture.^[180]

In 2014, Solomon Islandsofficially launched the Family Protection Act 2014, which was aimed at curbingdomestic violence in the country.^[181] Whilenumerous other interventions are being developed and implemented in thehealthcare system as well as the criminal justice system, these interventionsare still in their infancy and have largely stemmed from Western protocols.Therefore, for these models to be effective, time and commitment is needed tochange the cultural perception of domestic violence in Solomon Islands.^[178]

Literature

[edit]

Furtherinformation: Solomon Islands literature

Writers from Solomon Islandsinclude the novelists John Saunana and RexfordOrotaloa and the poet Jully Makini.

Media

[edit]

Newspapers

[edit]

See also: List of newspapers in SolomonIslands

There is one dailynewspaper, the Solomon Star, one daily online news website, SolomonTimes Online (www.solomontimes.com), two weekly papers, SolomonsVoice and Solomon Times, and two monthly papers, AgrikalsaNius and the Citizen's Press.

Radio

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Radio is the mostinfluential type of media in Solomon Islands due to language differences,illiteracy,^[182] andthe difficulty of receiving television signals in some parts of the country.The Solomon Islands BroadcastingCorporation (SIBC) operates public radio services, including thenational stations Radio Happy Isles 1037 on the dial and Wantok FM 96.3,and the provincial stations Radio Happy Lagoon and, formerly, RadioTemotu. There are two commercial FM stations, Z FM at 99.5 in Honiara butreceivable over a large majority of island out from Honiara, and, PAOA FM at97.7 in Honiara (also broadcasting on 107.5 in Auki), and, one community FM radiostation, Gold Ridge FM on 88.7.

Television

[edit]

See also: List of televisionstations in the Solomon Islands

No television service coversthe entire Solomon Islands, but some coverage is available in six main centresin four of the nine Provinces. Satellite TV stations can be received. InHoniara, there is a free-to-air HD digital TV, analogue TV, and online servicecalled Telekom Television Limited, operated by Solomon Telekom Co. Ltd., whichrebroadcasts a number of regional and international TV services including ABC Australia and BBCWorld News. Residents can also subscribe to SATSOL, a digital pay TVservice, re-transmitting satellite television.

Music

[edit]

Furtherinformation: Music of Solomon Islands

Traditional Melanesian music in Solomon Islandsincludes both group and solo vocals, slit-drum and panpipe ensembles. Bamboo music gained a following inthe 1920s. In the 1950s Edwin Nanau Sitori composed the song "Walkabout long Chinatown", which hasbeen referred to by the government as the unofficial "nationalsong" of the Solomon Islands.^[183] ModernSolomon Islander popular music includes various kinds of rock and reggae aswell as island music. ^{[check quotation syntax]}

Sport

[edit]

Main article: Sport in Solomon Islands

Rugby union: The Solomon Islands nationalrugby union team has played internationals since 1969. It took part inthe Oceania qualifying tournament for the 2003 and 2007 Rugby World Cups, butdid not qualify on either occasion.

Association football: The Solomon Islands nationalfootball team has proved among the most successful in Oceania and ispart of the OFC confederation in FIFA. They are currently ranked 141st out of210 teams in the FIFA World Rankings. The team became the first team to beatNew Zealand in qualifying for a play-off spot against Australia forqualification to the World Cup 2006. They were defeated 7–0 in Australiaand 2–1 at home.

Futsal: Closelyrelated to Association Football. On 14 June 2008, the Solomon Islands national futsalteam, the Kurukuru, won the Oceania Futsal Championship in Fiji to qualifythem for the 2008 FIFA Futsal World Cup, which washeld in Brazil from 30 September to 19 October 2008. Solomon Islands is thefutsal defending champions in the Oceania region. In 2008 and 2009 the Kurukuruwon the Oceania Futsal Championship in Fiji. In 2009 they defeated the hostnation Fiji 8–0to claim the title. The Kurukuru currently hold the world record for thefastest ever goal scored in an official futsal match. It was set by Kurukurucaptain Elliot Ragomo, who scored against New Caledonia three secondsinto the game in July 2009.^[184] Theyalso, however, hold the less enviable record for the worst defeat in thehistory of the Futsal World Cup,^{[clarification needed]} whenin 2008 they were beaten by Russia with two goals tothirty-one.^[185]

Beachsoccer: The Solomon Islands nationalbeach soccer team, the Bilikiki Boys, are statistically the most successfulteam in Oceania. They have won all three regional championships todate, thereby qualifying on each occasion for the FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup. TheBilikiki Boys are ranked fourteenth in the world as of 2010, higher than anyother team from Oceania.^[186]

Solomon Islands hostedthe 2023 Pacific Games.^[187]