Aden

Aden, city of Yemen. It is situated alongthe north coast of the Gulfof Aden and lies on a peninsula enclosing the eastern side ofAl-Tawāhī Harbour. The peninsula enclosing the western side of the harbour iscalled Little Aden.

Aden has itsearliest recorded mention in the Old Testament’s Book of Ezekiel,where it is named alongside Canneh as one of the places with which Tyre had tradingconnections. Canneh and Aden were the two principal termini of the spice roadof western Arabia, which was in use for about a millennium untilthe 3rd century ce. Later Aden continued to function as a trading centreunder Yemeni, Ethiopian, or Arab control. The height of trade activity in Adenbegan with the advent of Ayyubid rulein the 12th century and lasted until the fall of the Tahiriddynasty in the 16th century. In the 16th century the Ottomans establishedthemselves as rulers there, and Aden’s sea trade declined as global traderoutes began to bypass Ottoman control.

British interestin Aden as a strategic base dates from Napoleon’s conquestof Egypt, a conquestthat was regarded as a menace to Britain’s communications with India. About1800 the British established a garrison at Aden, and in 1802 they signed atreaty with the harbour’s ruler, the sultan of Laḥij. When steam navigationwas introduced some years later, it became necessary to have a coaling stationon the Red Sea routeto India. Aden, whichthe British had captured in 1839 from the sultan, was chosen as the mostsuitable location and later became so heavily used as a coal-bunkering facilitythat it was nicknamed the “Coalhole of the East.” Certain mainland areas werepurchased by the British between 1868 and 1888, and in 1937 Aden became aBritish crown colony.In 1953 an oil refinery was built at Little Aden, on the western side of thebay.

Aden becamepartially self-governing in 1962 and was incorporated in the Federation ofSouth Arabia (comprising the former Aden Protectorate territories) in 1963.When the federation was promised independence from Britain by 1968, however,Aden became the focus of a struggle between two rival nationalistorganizations, the Egyptian-supported Frontfor the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY) and theMarxist-oriented NationalLiberation Front (NLF), for eventual control of the country. It was asa part of the NLF-ruled People’s Republic of Southern Yemen that Aden achievedits independence on November 30, 1967, and became the national capital in 1968of what was known as South Yemen, or Yemen (Aden). In 1990 North Yemen andSouth Yemen merged into the single country of Yemen, and Sanaa became thenational capital of unified Yemen; Aden remained the country’s maineconomic hub.When Houthirebels captured Sanaa in 2015, Yemen moved its government to Aden.

Thecontemporary city of Aden consists of three sections: Crater, the oldcommercial quarter; Al-Tawāhī, the business section; and Maʿallāʾ, the mainharbour area. Its economy is based almost entirely on its functions as acommercial centre for nearby states and as a refueling stop for ships. The cityhas some small industries, including light manufacturing, evaporation of seawater to obtainmarine salt,and boatbuilding. Aden was a free port, with nocustoms duties, until 1970, when duties were imposed. There is an internationalairport at Khawr Maksar, a former Royal Air Force (RAF)base just north of Aden. The University of Aden was opened in 1970. Pop. (2004)588,938.

Kathiri

Kathiri (Arabic: السلطنة الكثيرية, romanized: al-Saltanah al-Kathīrīyah),officially the Kathiri State of Seiyun, was a sultanate inthe Hadhramaut regionof the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now part of Yemen andthe DhofarGovernorate of Oman.

History

The Kathiristate was established in 1395 by Badr as-Sahab ibn al-Habrali Bu Tuwairik, whoruled until c. 1430.^[3] TheKathiri conquered Ash-Shihr in the 1460s.^[4]

The countryinhabited by this tribe was formerly extensive, reaching from the Aulaqidistricts on the west to the Maliri tribe on the east, and including theseaports of Mukalla andShihr. Civil wars led to the interference of the Yafai, and muchof the Kathiri territory came under the sway of the Kasadi and Qu'aiti.^[5] TheKathiris were eventually restricted to a small inland portion of Hadhramautwith their capital at Seiyun (Say'un).^[6]

At the endof 1883, Sultan Abdulla bin Salih, one of the Kathiri Shaikhs, visited theResident at Aden. His principal object was to ascertain what attitude theBritish Government would maintain in the event of the Kathiri attacking theQu'aiti with a view to repossessing themselves of the ports of Shihr andMukalla. Abdulla bin Salih also visited Zanzibar with intent to intrigue withthe ex-Naqib of Mukalla, from whom however, he failed to obtain any materialassistance.^[5]

TheGovernment of India in March 1884 directed that the Kathiri be warned that anattack upon Shihr and Mukalla would be viewed with grave displeasure, and that,if necessary, a gun-boat would be sent to support the Qu'aiti ruler. TheJamadar of Shihr and Mukalla was subsequently assured in the most public mannerthat the Government would support him in the event of any attack on his ports.^[5]

In 1895, theKathiri captured the port at Dhufar, driving out the Governor, who retired toMirbat. In 1897 the port was recaptured.^[5] In1918, a long standing Qu'aiti-Kathiri quarrel was settled, with the assistanceof the Aden Residency, by the conclusion of an agreement between the parties,by which the Kathiri agreed to accept as binding upon them the treaty of 1888between the Qu'aiti and the British Government and also accepted thearbitration of the British Government in the settlement of future disputes.^[5]

SultanMansur bin Ghalib died at Mecca in May 1929 and was succeeded by his son Alibin Mansur.^[5]

The KathiriState declined to join the Federation of South Arabia, but remainedunder British protection as part of the Protectorate of South Arabia. By theend of the Sultanate's existence, its two principal cities of Say'un and Tarim werealmost entirely financially dependent on Kathiri holdings in Jakarta andSingapore. Al-Husayn ibn Ali, Kathiri sultan since 1949, was overthrown inOctober 1967, and the following month the former sultanate became part of newlyindependent South Yemen.^[7]

Thefirst prime minister in the history of East Timor, Mar'īal-Kathīrī, is a third generation descendant of immigrants fromKathiri, part of a significant migration of Hadhramis toSoutheast Asia in the 19th and 20th centuries. This is reflected in his name'Alkatiri'. The Indonesian human rights activist MunirSaid Thalib is also a descendant of immigrants from the Kathiris.^{[citation needed]}

List ofsultans

Yemen

Yemen,^[b] officiallythe Republic of Yemen,^[c] isa country in West Asia.^[11] Includingthe Socotra Archipelago, mainland Yemen is locatedin southern Arabia; bordering SaudiArabia to the north, Oman to the northeast, the south-eastern part ofthe ArabianSea to the east, the Gulf ofAden to the south, and the Red Sea tothe west, sharing maritime borders with Djibouti, Eritrea,and Somalia acrossthe Horn of Africa. Covering roughly 455,503 squarekilometres (175,871 square miles),^[5] witha coastline of approximately 2,000 kilometres (1,200 miles), Yemen is thesecond largest country on the Arabian Peninsula.^[12] Sanaa is itsconstitutional capital and largest city. Yemen's estimated population is 34.7million, mostly Arab Muslims.^[13] Itis a member of the Arab League, the UnitedNations, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Owing to itsgeographic location, Yemen has been at the crossroads of many civilisations forover 7,000 years. The Sabaeans formed a thriving commercial kingdomthat influenced parts ofmodern Ethiopia andEritrea.^[14][15][16] In275 CE, it was succeeded by the HimyariteKingdom, which spanned much of Yemen's present-day territory and washeavily influenced by Judaism.^[17] Christianity arrived in the fourthcentury, followed by the rapid spread of Islam in theseventh century. From its conversion to Islam, Yemen became a center of Islamiclearning, and Yemenite troops played a crucial role in early Islamic conquests.^[18] Muchof Yemen's architecture survived untilmodern times. For centuries, it was a primary producer of coffee, exportedthrough the port of Mocha. Various dynasties emerged between the 9th and16th centuries.^[19] Duringthe 19th century, the country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires.After World War I, the Kingdomof Yemen was established, which in 1962 became the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen)following a coup. In 1967, the British AdenProtectorate became the independent People'sDemocratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen), the first and onlyofficially socialist state in the Arab world. In 1990, the two Yemeni statesunited to form the modern Republic of Yemen, with Ali Abdullah Saleh serving as the firstpresident until his resignation in 2012 in the wake of the ArabSpring.^[20][21]

Since 2011,Yemen has been enduring apolitical crisis, marked by streetprotests against poverty, unemployment, corruption, and PresidentSaleh's plan to amend Yemen's constitution and eliminate thepresidential term limit.^[22] By2015, the country became engulfed by an ongoing civil war withmultiple entities vying for governance, including the Presidential Leadership Council ofthe internationally recognized government, and the Houthimovement's Supreme Political Council. This conflict,which has escalated to involve various foreign powers, has led to a severe humanitarian crisis.^{[23][24][25][26][27][28]}

Yemen is oneof the least developed countries in the world,^[29] facingsignificant obstacles to sustainable development,^[30] andis one of the poorest countries in the Middle East and North Africa.^[31] In2019, the United Nations reported that Yemen had the highest number of peoplein need of humanitarian aid, amounting to about 24 million individuals, ornearly 75% of its population.^[32] Asof 2020, Yemen ranked the highest in the Fragile States Index^[33] andsecond-worst on the Global Hunger Index, surpassed only bythe Central African Republic.^[33] Asof 2024, Yemen is regarded as the world's least peaceful country by the Global Peace Index.^[34] Additionally,it has the lowest Human Development Index out of allnon-African countries. Yemen is one of the world's most vulnerable countriesto climate change and among the least prepared tohandle its effects.

Etymology

Furtherinformation: ArabiaFelix and SouthArabia

Theterm Yamnat was first mentioned in the OldSouth Arabian inscriptions on the title of one of the kings of thesecond Himyarite Kingdom known as ShammarYahri'sh. The term probably referred to the southwestern coastline ofthe Arabian Peninsula and the southern coastlinebetween Aden and Hadhramaut.^[35][36] HistoricalYemen included much greater territory than the current nation,stretching from northern 'Asir insouthwestern Saudi Arabia to Dhofar in southern Oman.^[37][38]

Oneetymology derives Yemen from ymnt, meaning literally "South [ofthe Arabian Peninsula]", and significantly playson the notion of the land to the right (𐩺𐩣𐩬).^[39] Othersources claim that Yemen is related to yamn or yumn,meaning "felicity" or "blessed", as much of the country isfertile, in contrast to the barren land of most of Arabia.^[40][41] TheRomans called it Arabia Felix ("happy" or"fortunate" Arabia"),as opposed to Arabia Deserta ("desertedArabia"). Latin and Greek writers referred to ancient Yemen as"India", which arose from the Persians calling the Abyssinians whomthey came into contact with in South Arabia by the name of the black-skinnedpeople who lived next to them.^[42][43]

History

Mainarticle: Historyof Yemen

Ancienthistory

Mainarticles: Ancient history of Yemen, Awsan, Sheba, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Ma'in, and Himyar

With itslong sea border between eastern and western civilizations, Yemen has longexisted at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic location in terms of tradeon the west of the Arabian Peninsula. Large settlements for their era existedin the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC.^[44] The Sabaean Kingdom existedin Yemen from c. 1000 BCE to c. 275CE.^[45] [46] Itsinhabitants were the Sabaeans,^[d] Thefour major kingdoms or tribal confederations in SouthArabia were Saba, Hadhramaut, Qataban,and Ma'in.

Sabaʾ (Arabic: سَـبَـأ)^[47][48] isthought to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent federation.^[49] TheSabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib generallythought to mean unifier,^[50] ora priest-king,^[51] orthe head of the confederation of South Arabian kingdoms, the "king of thekings".^[52] Therole of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom andpreside over them all.^[53] TheSabaeans built the Great Dam of Marib around 940 BC.^[54] Thedam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.

By the thirdcentury BC, Qataban, Hadhramaut, and Ma'in became independent from Saba andestablished themselves in the Yemeni arena. Minaean rule stretched as faras Dedan,^[55] withtheir capital at Baraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'inafter the collapse of Qataban in 50 BC. By the time of the Roman expedition toArabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power inSouthern Arabia.^[56] AeliusGallus was ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Romandominance over the Sabaeans.^[57]

The Romans hada vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix. A Romanarmy of 10,000 men was defeated before reaching Marib.^[58] Strabo's closerelationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend'sdefeat in his writings. It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and 60days to return to Egypt. The Romans blamed their Nabataean guideand executed him for treachery.^[59] Nodirect mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet beenfound.

After theRoman expedition (perhaps earlier) the country fell into chaos, and two clans,namely Hamdan and Himyar, claimedkingship, assuming the title King of Sheba and Dhu Raydan.^[60] DhuRaydan, i.e., Himyarites, allied themselves with Aksum inEthiopia against the Sabaeans.^[61] Thechief of Bakil andking of Saba and Dhu Raydan, El Sharih Yahdhib,launched successful campaigns against the Himyarites and Habashat, i.e., Aksum. El Sharihtook pride in his campaigns and added the title Yahdhib to his name, whichmeans "suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them topieces.^[62] Sana'acame into prominence during his reign, as he built the GhumdanPalace as his place of residence.

TheHimyarites annexed Sana'a from Hamdan around 100 AD.^[63] Hashdi tribesmenrebelled against them and regained Sana'a around 180.^[64] ShammarYahri'sh had conquered Hadhramaut, Najran, and Tihamah by275, thus unifying Yemen and consolidating Himyarite rule.^[65][66] TheHimyarites rejected polytheism and adhered to a consensual form of monotheism called Rahmanism.^[67]

In 354,Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by Theophilos the Indian to convert theHimyarites to Christianity.^[68] Accordingto Philostorgius, the mission was resisted by local Jews.^[69] Severalinscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean praisingthe ruling house in Jewish terms for "...helping and empowering the Peopleof Israel."^[70]

According toIslamic traditions, King As'ad the Perfect mounted a militaryexpedition to support the Jews of Yathrib.^[71] AbuKariba As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign tocentral Arabia or Najd tosupport the vassal Kingdom of Kinda against the Lakhmids.^[72] However,no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib was discovered from his lengthyreign. Abu Kariba died in 445, having reigned for almost 50 years.^[73] By515, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitterconflict between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention.The last Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by Aksum against hisJewish rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a campaign against theLakhmids in southern Iraq, with the support of other Arab allies of Byzantium.^[74] TheLakhmids were a bulwark of Persia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion likeChristianity.^[75]

After thedeath of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur around 521, a Himyarite Jewish warlord called Dhu Nuwas roseto power. Emperor Justinian I sent an embassy to Yemen. He wantedthe officially Christian Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes ininner Arabia to launch military operations against Persia. Justinian I bestowedthe "dignity of king" upon the Arab sheikhs ofKindah and Ghassan in central and northern Arabia.^[76] Fromearly on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powersof the coast of the Red Sea. They were successful in converting^{[clarification needed][77]} Aksumand influencing their culture. The results concerning to Yemen were ratherdisappointing.^[76]

A Kenditeprince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against Abraha and his Arab Christianallies. A truce was reached once the Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.^[78] Abrahadied around 570. The Sasanid Empire annexed Aden around 570. Undertheir rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for Aden and Sana'a.This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since thegreater part of the country was under several independent clans until thearrival of Islam in 630.^[79]

MiddleAges

Seealso: Islamic history of Yemen

Advent ofIslam and the three dynasties

Mainarticles: Yu'firids, Ziyadiddynasty, and Imams of Yemen

Muhammad senthis cousin Ali toSana'a and its surroundings around 630. At the time, Yemen was the mostadvanced region in Arabia.^[80] The BanuHamdan confederation was among the first to accept Islam. Muhammadsent Muadh ibn Jabal, as well to Al-Janad, inpresent-day Taiz,and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders.^[81] Majortribes, including Himyar, sent delegations to Medina duringthe "year of delegations" around 630–631. Several Yemenis acceptedIslam before 630, such as Ammaribn Yasir, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami, Miqdadibn Aswad, Abu Musa Ashaari, and Sharhabeel ibn Hasana. A man named 'Abhala ibnKa'ab Al-Ansi expelled the remaining Persians and claimed he was aprophet of Rahman. He was assassinated by a Yemeni ofPersian origin called Fayruzal-Daylami. Christians, who were mainly staying in Najran alongwith Jews, agreed to pay jizyah (Arabic: جِـزْيَـة),although some Jews converted to Islam, such as Wahbibn Munabbih and Ka'abal-Ahbar.

Yemen wasstable during the Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played apivotal role in the Islamic expansion into Egypt, Iraq, Persia, the Levant, Anatolia, NorthAfrica, Sicily, and Andalusia.^[82][83][84] Yemenitribes who settled in Syria contributed significantly to the solidificationof Umayyad rule, especially during the reignof MarwanI. Powerful Yemenite tribes such as Kinda were on his side during the Battle of Marj Rahit.^[85][86]

Muhammad ibnAbdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty in Tihamah around818. The state stretched from Haly (inpresent-day Saudi Arabia) to Aden. They nominally recognized the AbbasidCaliphate but ruled independently from Zabid.^[87] Byvirtue of its location, they developed a special relationship with Abyssinia. Thechief of the Dahlak islands exported slaves, as well asamber and leopard hides, to the ruler of Yemen.^[88] Theycontrolled only a small portion of the coastal strip in Tihamah along the RedSea, and never exercised control over the highlands and Hadhramaut.^[89] AHimyarite clan called the Yufirids established their rule over the highlandsfrom Saada to Taiz, while Hadhramautwas an Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in Baghdad.^[87]

Thefirst Zaidi imam, Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived in Yemen in893. He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada fromMedina to arbitrate tribal disputes.^[90] Yahyapersuaded local tribesmen to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spreadacross the highlands, as the tribes of Hashid and Bakil, later knownas "the twin wings of the imamate", accepted his authority.^[91] Hefounded the Zaidiimamate in 897. Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran.He also tried to capture Sana'a from the Yufirids in 901 but failed miserably.

Sulayhiddynasty (1047–1138)

The Sulayhiddynasty was founded in the northern highlands around 1040; at thetime, Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties. In 1060, Aliibn Muhammad Al-Sulayhi conquered Zabid and killed its ruler Al-Najah,founder of the Najahid dynasty. His sons were forced to flee to Dahlak.^[92] Hadhramautfell into Sulayhid hands after their capture of Aden in 1162.^[93]

By 1063, Alihad subjugated Greater Yemen.^[94] Hethen marched toward Hejaz and occupied Makkah.^[95] Aliwas married to Asma bint Shihab, who governed Yemen with herhusband.^[96] The Khutba during Friday prayers wasproclaimed in both her husband's name and hers. No other Arab woman had thishonor since the advent of Islam.^[96]

Alial-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to Mecca in 1084. His sonAhmed Al-Mukarram led an army to Zabid and killed 8,000 of its inhabitants.^[97] Helater installed the Zurayids to govern Aden. al-Mukarram, who had beenafflicted with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087and handed over power to his wife Arwaal-Sulayhi.^[98] QueenArwa moved the seat of the Sulayhid dynasty from Sana'a to Jibla,a small town in central Yemen near Ibb. She sent Ismailimissionaries to India, where a significant Ismaili community was formed thatexists to this day.^[99]

Queen Arwacontinued to rule securely until her death in 1138.^[99] Sheis still remembered as a great and much-loved sovereign, as attested in Yemenihistoriography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to as Balqisal-sughra ("the junior queen of Sheba").^[100] Shortlyafter Arwa's death, the country was split between five competing pettydynasties along religious lines.^[101] The Ayyubiddynasty overthrew the FatimidCaliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise to power, Saladin dispatchedhis brother Turan Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174.^[102]

Ayyubidconquest (1171–1260)

Mainarticle: Ayyubiddynasty

Turan Shah conqueredZabid from the Mahdids in 1174, then marched toward Aden in June andcaptured it from the Zurayids.^[103] The Hamdanidsultans of Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175, and the Ayyubids didnot manage to secure Sana'a until 1189.^[104] TheAyyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen, where they succeeded ineliminating the ministates of that region, while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmencontinued to hold out in several fortresses.^[104]

The Ayyubidsfailed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen.^[105] In1191, Zaydis of Shibam Kawkaban rebelled and killed700 Ayyubid soldiers.^[106] Imam Abdullah bin Hamza proclaimed the imamatein 1197 and fought al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam Abdullahwas defeated at first but was able to conquer Sana'a and Dhamar in1198,^[107] andal-Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202.^[108]

Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggleagainst the Ayyubid until his death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidicommunity was split between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed, and atruce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.^[109] TheAyyubid army was defeated in Dhamar in1226.^[109] AyyubidSultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228, never to return.^[110] Othersources suggest that he was forced to leave for Egypt instead in 1223.^[111]

Rasuliddynasty (1229–1454)

The Rasuliddynasty was established in 1229 by Umaribn Ali, who was appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in 1223. Whenthe last Ayyubid ruler left Yemen in 1229, Umar stayed in the country ascaretaker. He subsequently declared himself an independent king by assuming thetitle "al-Malik Al-Mansur" (the king assisted by Allah).^[111]

Umar firstestablished himself at Zabid, then moved into the mountainous interior, takingthe important highland centre Sana'a. However, the Rasulid capitals were Zabidand Taiz. He was assassinated by his nephew in 1249.^[110] Omar'sson Yusuf defeated the faction led by hisfather's assassins and crushed several counterattacks by the Zaydi imams whostill held on in the northern highland. Mainly because of the victories hescored over his rivals, he assumed the honorific title "al-Muzaffar"(the victorious).^[112]

Afterthe fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in1258, al-Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated the title of caliph.^[112] Hechose the city of Taiz to become the political capital of the kingdom becauseof its strategic location and proximity to Aden.^[113] TheRasulid sultans built numerous Madrasas tosolidify the Shafi'i school of thought, which is still the dominantschool of jurisprudence amongstYemenis today.^[114] Undertheir rule, Taiz and Zabid became major international centres of Islamiclearning.^[115] Thekings were educated men in their own right, who not only had importantlibraries but also wrote treatises on a wide array of subjects, ranging fromastrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy.^[113]

They had adifficult relationship with the Mamluksof Egypt because the latter considered them a vassal state.^[113] Theircompetition centred over the Hejaz and the right to provide kiswa ofthe Ka'aba inMecca.^[113] Thedynasty became increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over theproblem of succession, combined with periodic tribal revolts, as they werelocked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.^[115] Duringthe last 12 years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between severalcontenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulid provided anopportunity for the BanuTaher clan to take over and establish themselves as the new rulers ofYemen in 1454 AD.^[114]

Tahiriddynasty (1454–1517)

Mainarticles: Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations and Ottoman–Portugueseconflicts (1538–1560)

The Tahirids werea local clan based in Rada'a.They built schools, mosques, and irrigation channels, as well as water cisternsand bridges in Zabid, Aden, Rada'a, andJuban. Their best-known monument is the AmiriyaMadrasa in Rada'District, which was built in 1504.^[116] TheTahirids were too weak either to contain the Zaydi imams or to defendthemselves against foreign attacks.

Realizinghow rich the Tahirid realm was, the Mamluks decided to conquer it.^[117] TheMamluk army, with the support of forces loyal to Zaydi Imam Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din,conquered the entire Tahirid realm but failed to capture Aden in 1517. TheMamluk victory was short-lived. The OttomanEmpire conquered Egypt, hanging the last Mamluk Sultan in Cairo.^[117] TheOttomans had not decided to conquer Yemen until 1538. The Zaydi highland tribesemerged as national heroes^[118] byoffering stiff, vigorous resistance to the Turkish occupation.^[119] TheMamluks tried to attach Yemen to Egypt and the Portuguese led by Afonso de Albuquerque, occupied the islandof Socotra andmade an unsuccessful attack on Aden in 1513.^[120]

Portuguese(1498–1756)

Mainarticles: Battle of Ash-Shihr (1523), Battle of al-Shihr (1531), Battle of al-Shihr (1548), Siegeof Aden, and Capture of Aden (1548)

Starting inthe 15th century, Portugal intervened, dominating the port of Aden forabout 20 years and maintaining a fortified enclave on the island of Socotraduring this period. From the 16th century, the Portuguese posed an immediatethreat to Indian Ocean trade. The Mamluks therefore sent an army under Husseinal-Kurdi to fight the intruders ^[121] TheMamluk sultan went to Zabid in 1515 and entered into diplomatic talks with theTahiri sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed for the jihadagainst the Portuguese. Instead of confronting them, the Mamluks, who wererunning out of food and water, landed on the coast of Yemen and began harassingthe villagers of Tihamah to obtain the supplies they needed.

The interestof Portugal on the Red Sea consisted on the one hand of guaranteeing contactswith a Christian ally in Ethiopia and on the other of being able to attackMecca and the Arab territories from the rear, while still having absolutedominance over trade of spices, the main intention was to dominate the commerceof the cities on the coast of Africa and Arabia.^[122] Tothis end, Portugal sought to influence and dominate by force or persuasion allthe ports and kingdoms that fought among themselves. It was common for Portugalto keep under its influence the Arab allies that were interested in maintainingindependence from other Arab states in the region.^[123]

Modernhistory

Seealso: Modern history of Yemen

TheZaydis and Ottomans

Seealso: Qasimid State, YemenEyalet, and Yemeni–Ottoman conflicts

The Ottomanshad two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen—the Islamic holy cities ofMecca and Medina, and the trade route with India for spices and textiles, boththreatened, and the latter virtually eclipsed, by the arrival of the Portuguesein the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the early 16th century.^[124] Hadım Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governorof Egypt, was ordered to command a fleet of 90 shipsto conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant anarchy and discordas Pasha described it by saying:^[125]

Yemen is aland with no lord, an empty province. It would be not only possible but easy tocapture, and should it be captured, it would be master of the lands of India and send every year a great amountof gold and jewels to Constantinople.

Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruledover the northern highlands including Sana'a, while Aden was held by the lastTahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Pasha stormed Aden in 1538, killing its ruler,and extended Ottoman authority to include Zabid in 1539 and eventually Tihamahin its entirety.^[126] Zabidbecame the administrative headquarters of Yemen Eyalet.^[126] TheOttoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands. They heldsway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around Zabid, Mocha,and Aden.^[127] Of80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from Egypt between 1539 and 1547, only 7,000survived.^[128] TheOttoman accountant-general in Egypt remarked:^[128]

We have seenno foundry like Yemen for our soldiers. Each time we have sent an expeditionaryforce there, it has melted away like salt dissolved in water.

The Ottomanssent yet another expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547, while Imam al-MutawakkilYahya Sharaf ad-Din was ruling the highlands independently. Yahya chose his sonAli to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son al-Mutahhar ibnYahya.^[129] Al-Mutahharwas lame, so he was not qualified for the imamate.^[129] Heurged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor in Zabid, to attack hisfather.^[130] Indeed,Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam al-Mutahhar stormedTaiz and marched north toward Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially madeImam al-Mutahhar a Sanjak-bey with authority over 'Amran. Imamal-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a,but the Ottomans, led by ÖzdemirPasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in Thula. Özdemir Pashaeffectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. Özdemir died inSana'a in 1561 and was succeeded by Mahmud Pasha.

Mahmud Pashawas described by other Ottoman officials as a corrupt and unscrupulousgovernor, and he was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen wassplit into two provinces, the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha andTihamah under Murad Pasha. Imam al-Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign inwhich he claimed that the prophet Mohammed came to him in a dream and advisedhim to wage jihad against the Ottomans.^[131] Al-Mutahharled the tribes to capture Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried torelieve Sana'a, highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all ofthem.^[132] Over80 battles were fought. The last decisive encounter took place in Dhamar around1568, in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and his head sent to al-Mutahhar inSana'a.^[132][133] By1568, only Zabid remained under the possession of the Turks.^[133]

In 1632,Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1,000 men to conquer Mecca.^[134] Thearmy entered the city in triumph and killed its governor.^[134] TheOttomans sent an army from Egypt to fight the Yemenites.^[134] Seeingthat the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreatedto a valley outside Mecca.^[135] Ottomantroops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them withwater. This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200casualties, most from thirst.^[135] Thetribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen.^[136] Al-Mu'ayyadMuhammad died in 1644. He was succeeded by Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il, another son ofal-Mansur al-Qasim, who conquered Yemen in its entirety.^{[137][138][139][140]}

Yemen becamethe sole coffee producer in the world.^[141] Thecountry established diplomatic relations with the Safaviddynasty of Persia, Ottomans of Hejaz, MughalEmpire in India, and Ethiopia, as well. In the first half of the 18thcentury, the Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling coffeetrees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies, EastAfrica, the West Indies, and Latin America.^[142] Theimamate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrelsand tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynastyin the 18th century.^[143]

GreatBritain and the nine regions

Seealso: AdenProtectorate and Sultanate of Lahej

The Britishwere looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to India. Ittook 700 tons of coal for a round-trip from Suez to Bombay. East India Company officials decidedon Aden.The British Empire tried to reach an agreement withthe Zaydi imam of Sana'a, permitting them a foothold in Mocha, and when unableto secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement from the Sultan of Lahej, enabling them to consolidate aposition in Aden.^[144] TheBritish managed to occupy Aden and evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden andforced him to accept their "protection".^[144] InNovember 1839, 5,000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and200 were killed.

Withemigrants from India, East Africa, and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a worldcity. In 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of thecity.^[145] TheEnglish presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks assertedto the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of Arabia, includingYemen as the successor of Mohammed and the Chief of the Universal Caliphate.^[146]

Ottomanreturn

The Ottomanswere concerned about the British expansion from the British-ruledsubcontinent to the Red Sea and Arabia. They returned to the Tihamahin 1849 after an absence of two centuries.^[147] Rivalriesand disturbances continued among the Zaydi imams, between them and theirdeputies, with the ulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those whobelonged to other sects. Some citizens of Sana'a were desperate to return lawand order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in Tihamah to pacify thecountry.^[148] Theopening of the Suez Canal in 1869 strengthened the Ottomandecision to remain in Yemen.^[149] By1873, the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands. Sana'abecame the administrative capital of YemenVilayet.

The Ottomanslearned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment oflocal lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize theYemeni society, while Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves inYemeni nationalist terms.^[150] TheOttomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs andappointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms toenhance the country's economic welfare. However, corruption was widespread inthe Ottoman administration in Yemen. This was because only the worst of theofficials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.^[151] TheOttomans had reasserted control over the highlands for a temporary duration.^[147] Theso-called Tanzimat reforms were considered heretic by theZaydi tribes. In 1876, the Hashid and Bakil tribes rebelled against theOttomans; the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.^[152]

The tribalchiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbedOttoman efforts to pacify the land. AhmedIzzet Pasha proposed that the Ottoman army evacuate the highlands andconfine itself to Tihamah, and not unnecessarily burden itself with continuingmilitary operation against the Zaydi tribes.^[151] Imam Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellionagainst the Turks in 1904; the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.^[153] Therevolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costingthem as many as 10,000 soldiers and as much as 500,000 pounds peryear.^[154] TheOttomans signed a treaty with imam Yahya Hamidaddin in 1911. Underthe treaty, Imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the Zaydinorthern highlands. The Ottomans continued to rule Shafi'i areasin the mid-south until their departure in 1918.

MutawakkiliteKingdom

Mainarticle: Kingdomof Yemen

Imam Yahyahamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the northern highlands independently from1911, from which he began a conquest of the Yemen lands. In 1925 Yahya capturedal-Hudaydah from the Idrisids.^[155] In1927, Yahya's forces were about 50 km (30 mi) away from Aden, Taiz,and Ibb, and were bombed by the British for five days; the imam had to pullback.^[156] Small Bedouin forces,mainly from the Madh'hij confederation of Marib,attacked Shabwah but were bombed by the British andhad to retreat.

The ItalianEmpire was the first to recognize Yahya as the king of Yemen in 1926.This created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it asrecognition of Imam Yahya's claim to sovereignty over Greater Yemen, whichincluded the Aden protectorate and Asir.^[157] TheIdrisis turned to Ibn Saud seeking his protection from Yahya. However,in 1932, the Idrisis broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Yahyaseeking help against Ibn Saud, who had begun liquidating their authority andexpressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi domain.^[158][159] Yahyademanded the return of all Idrisi dominion.^[158]

Negotiationsbetween Yahya and Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After the 1934 Saudi-Yemeni war,Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.^[160] ImamYahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis toSaudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of Najran, Asir, and Jazan for20 years.^[161] andsigned another treaty with the British government in 1934. The imam recognizedthe British sovereignty over Aden protectorate for 40 years.^[162] Outof fear for Hudaydah, Yahya did submit to these demands.

ColonialAden

Starting in1890, hundreds of Yemeni people from Hajz, Al-Baetha, and Taiz migrated to Adento work at ports, and as labourers. This helped the population of Aden onceagain become predominantly Arab after, having been declared a free zone, it hadbecome mostly foreigners. During World War II, Aden had increasing economicgrowth and became the second-busiest port in the world after NewYork City.^[163] Afterthe rise of labour unions, a rift was apparent between the sectors of workersand the first signs of resistance to the occupation started in 1943.^[163] Muhammad Ali Luqman founded the firstArabic club and school in Aden, and was the first to start working towards aunion.^[164]

The Colonyof Aden was divided into an eastern colony and a western colony. Thosewere further divided into 23 sultanates and emirates, and several independenttribes that had no relationships with the sultanates. The deal between thesultanates and Britain detailed protection and complete control of foreignrelations by the British. The Sultanate of Lahej was the only one in which thesultan was referred to as His Highness.^[165] The Federation of South Arabia wascreated by the British to counter Arabnationalism by giving more freedom to the rulers of the nations.^[166]

The North Yemen Civil War inspired many inthe south to rise against the British rule. The National Liberation Front (NLF)of Yemen was formed with the leadership of Qahtan Muhammad Al-Shaabi. The NLF hopedto destroy all the sultanates and eventually unite with the Yemen Arab Republic. Most of the support forthe NLF came from Radfan and Yafa, so the British launched OperationNutcracker, which completely burned Radfan in January 1964.^[167]

Twostates

Mainarticles: Yemen Arab Republic and SouthYemen

Arabnationalism had an influence in some circles who opposed the lack ofmodernization efforts in the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became apparent whenImam Ahmad bin Yahya died in 1962. He was succeededby his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking the North Yemen Civil War.^[168][169] TheHamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and Jordan(mostly with weapons and financial aid, but also with small military forces),whilst the military rebels were backed by Egypt. Egypt provided the rebels withweapons and financial assistance, but also sent a large military force toparticipate in the fighting. Israel covertly supplied weapons to the royaliststo keep the Egyptian military busy in Yemen and make Nasser less likely toinitiate a conflict in the Sinai. After six years of civil war, the militaryrebels formed the Yemen Arab Republic.^[170]

Therevolution in the north coincided with the AdenEmergency, which hastened the end of British rule in the south.^[171] On30 November 1967, the state of South Yemen was formed, comprising Aden and theformer Protectorate of South Arabia. This socialist state was later officiallyknown as the People's Democratic Republic ofYemen and a programme of nationalisation was begun.^[172]

Relationsbetween the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. TheSouth was supported by the Eastern bloc. The North, however, was not able toget the same connections. In 1972, the two states fought a war. The war wasresolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by the ArabLeague, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In1978, Ali Abdullah Saleh was named as presidentof the Yemen Arab Republic.^[173] Afterthe war, the North complained about the South's help from foreign countries.This included Saudi Arabia.^[174]

In 1979,fresh fighting between the two states resumed and efforts were renewed to bringabout unification.^[173] Thousandswere killed in 1986 in the South Yemen Civil War.^[171] President Ali Nasser Muhammad fled to the north andwas later sentenced to death for treason. A new government formed.^[173]

Unificationand civil war

Mainarticles: Yemeni unification and Yemeni Civil War (1994)

In 1990, thetwo governments reached a full agreement on the joint governing of Yemen, andthe countries were merged on 22 May 1990, with Saleh as president.^[173] Thepresident of South Yemen, Ali Salim al-Beidh, became vice president.^[173] Aunified parliament was formed anda unity constitution was agreed upon.^[173] Inthe 1993 parliamentary election,the first held after unification, the General People's Congress won122 of 301 seats.^[175]: 309

Afterthe invasionof Kuwait crisis in 1990, Yemen's president opposed militaryintervention from non-Arab states.^[176] Asa member of the United Nations Security Council for1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerningIraq and Kuwait^[177] andvoted against the "...use of force resolution." The vote outraged theU.S.,^[178] andSaudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for itsopposition to the intervention.^[179]

In theabsence of strong state institutions, elitepolitics in Yemen constituted a de facto formof collaborative governance, where competingtribal, regional, religious, and political interests agreed to hold themselvesin check through tacit acceptance of the balance it produced.^[180] Theinformal political settlement was held together by a power-sharing deal amongthree men: President Saleh, who controlled the state; major general Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar, who controlled the largestshare of the Yemeni Armed Forces; and Abdullah ibn Husayn al-Ahmar,figurehead of the Islamist al-Islahparty and Saudi Arabia's chosen broker of transnational patronagepayments to various political players,^[181] includingtribal sheikhs.^{[182][183][184][185]} TheSaudi payments have been intended to facilitate the tribes' autonomy from theYemeni government and to give the Saudi government a mechanism with which toweigh in on Yemen's political decision-making.^[186]

Followingfood riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition government made up of theruling parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993. However,Vice President al-Beidh withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and said he would notreturn to the government until his grievances were addressed. These includednorthern violence against his Yemeni Socialist Party, as well as theeconomic marginalization of the south.^[187] Negotiationsto end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994. The government of PrimeMinister Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas becameineffective due to political infighting.^[188]

An accordbetween northern and southern leaders was signed in Amman, Jordan on 20February 1994, but this could not stop the civil war.^[189] Duringthese tensions, both the northern and southern armies (which had neverintegrated) gathered on their respective frontiers.^[190]

ContemporaryYemen

Ali Abdullah Saleh became Yemen's firstdirectly elected president in the 1999 presidential election,winning 96% of the vote.^[175]: 310 Theonly other candidate, Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son ofQahtan Muhammad al-Sha'abi, a former president of South Yemen. Though a memberof Saleh's General People's Congress (GPC)party, Najeeb ran as an independent.^[192]

In October2000, 17 U.S. personnel died after an al-Qaeda suicideattack on the U.S. naval vessel USS Cole in Aden. After the September 11 attacks on the UnitedStates, President Saleh assured U.S. President GeorgeW. Bush that Yemen was a partner in his War onTerror. In 2001, violence surrounded a referendum, whichapparently supported extending Saleh's rule and powers.

The Houthi insurgency in Yemen began inJune 2004 when dissident cleric Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head ofthe Zaidi Shia sect, launched an uprising against the Yemeni government. TheYemeni government alleged that the Houthis wereseeking to overthrow it and to implement Shī'ite religiouslaw. The rebels countered that they were "defending their communityagainst discrimination" and government aggression.^[193] In2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country betweenpolice and protesters over rising fuel prices. In the 2006 presidential election,Saleh won with 77% of the vote. His main rival, Faisal bin Shamlan, received 22%.^[194][195] Salehwas sworn in for another term on 27 September.^[196]

A suicidebomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in the MaribGovernorate in July 2007. A series of bomb attacks occurred on police,official, diplomatic, foreign business, and tourism targets in 2008. Carbombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people, including six ofthe assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an opposition rally in Sana'ademanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire.^[197]

Revolutionand aftermath

Mainarticles: Houthi takeover in Yemen, Saudi Arabian-ledintervention in Yemen, Yemeni civil war (2014–present),and Famine in Yemen

The2011 Yemeni revolution followed other ArabSpring mass protests in early 2011. The uprising was initially againstunemployment, economic conditions, and corruption, as well as against thegovernment's proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen so that Saleh'sson could inherit the presidency.

In March2011, police snipers opened fire on a pro-democracy camp in Sana'a, killingmore than 50 people. In May, dozens were killed in clashes between troops andtribal fighters in Sana'a. By this point, Saleh began to lose internationalsupport. In October 2011, Yemeni human rights activist TawakulKarman won the NobelPeace Prize, and the UN Security Council condemned the violenceand called for a transfer of power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh, inneighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign the Gulf Co-operation Council plan forpolitical transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon signing thedocument, he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidencyto his deputy, Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi.^[198]

Hadi tookoffice for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested presidential electionsin February 2012.^[199] Aunity government—including a prime minister from the opposition—was formed.Al-Hadi would oversee the drafting of a new constitution, followed byparliamentary and presidential elections in 2014. Saleh returned in February2012. In the face of objections from thousands of street protesters, parliamentgranted him full immunity from prosecution. Saleh's son, General Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh, continues toexercise a strong hold on sections of the military and security forces.

AQAP claimed responsibilityfor a February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace that killed 26Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was alsobehind a suicide bombing that killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later.In September 2012, a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after alocal al-Qaeda leader Saidal-Shihri was reported killed in the south.

By 2012,there was a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops"—inaddition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S. militarypresence—in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens.^[200] Manyanalysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government role in cultivatingterrorist activity in the country.^[201] Followingthe election of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, the Yemeni militarywas able to push Ansar al-Sharia back and recapturethe Shabwah Governorate.

  Controlledby the Government of Yemen (under the Presidential Leadership Council sinceApril 2022) and allies

  Controlledby Houthis-led Supreme Political Council

  Controlledby the UAE-backed Southern Transitional Council

  Controlledby Al-Qaeda (AQAP) and Islamic State of Iraq and theLevant-affiliated Ansar al-Sharia

  Controlledby Hadrami Elite Forces.

  Controlledby Tareq Saleh's National Resistance Forces

The centralgovernment in Sana'a remained weak, staving off challenges from southern separatists and Houthis as wellas AQAP. The Houthi insurgency intensified after Haditook power, escalating in September 2014 as anti-government forces led by Abdul-Malik al-Houthi swept into the capital and forced Hadito agree to a "unity" government.^[202] TheHouthis then refused to participate in the government,^[203] althoughthey continued to apply pressure on Hadi and his ministers, even shelling thepresident's private residence and placing him under house arrest,^[204] untilthe government's mass resignation in January 2015.^[205] Thefollowing month, the Houthis dissolved parliament and declared that a Revolutionary Committee under Mohammed Ali al-Houthi was the interimauthority in Yemen. Abdul-Malik al-Houthi, a cousin of the acting president,called the takeover a "glorious revolution". However, the"constitutional declaration" of 6 February 2015 was widely rejectedby opposition politicians and foreign governments, including the UnitedNations.^[26]

Hadi managedto flee from Sana'a to Aden, his hometown and stronghold in the south, on 21February 2015. He promptly gave a televised speech rescinding his resignation,condemning the coup, and calling for recognition as the constitutionalpresident of Yemen.^[206] Thefollowing month, Hadi declared Aden Yemen's "temporary" capital.^[207][208] TheHouthis, however, rebuffed an initiative by the Gulf Cooperation Council andcontinued to move south toward Aden. All U.S. personnel were evacuated, andPresident Hadi was forced to flee the country to Saudi Arabia. On 26 March2015, Saudi Arabia announced Operation Decisive Storm and beganairstrikes and announced its intentions to lead a military coalition againstthe Houthis, who they claimed were being aided by Iran and began a forcebuildup along the Yemeni border. The coalition included the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, Egypt, and Pakistan. TheUnited States announced that it was assisting with intelligence, targeting, andlogistics. After Hadi troops took control of Aden from Houthis, jihadist groupsbecame active in the city, and some terrorist incidents were linked to themsuch as Missionaries of Charity attackin Aden on 4 March 2016. In February 2018, Aden was seized by the UAE-backedseparatist Southern Transitional Council.^[209]

Yemen hasbeen suffering from a famine since 2016 as a resultof the civil war. More than 50,000 children in Yemen died from starvation in2017.^[210][211] Numerouscommentators have condemned the Saudi-led coalition's military campaign,including its blockade of Yemen, as genocide.^{[212][213][214]} Thefamine is being compounded by an outbreak of cholera thathas affected more than one million people.^[215] TheSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and blockade of Yemen have contributedto the famine and cholera epidemic.^[216][217] TheUN estimated that by the end of 2021, the war in Yemen would have caused over377,000 deaths, and roughly 70% of deaths were children under age 5.^[218][219]

On 4December 2017, deposed strongman and former president Ali Abdullah Saleh, accused of treason, wasassassinated by Houthis whilst attempting to flee clashes near rebel-heldSana'a between Houthi and pro-Saleh forces.^[220] Afterlosing the support of the Saudi-led coalition, Yemen's President Abd RabbuhMansur Hadi resigned, and the Presidential Leadership Council took power inApril 2022.^[221]

Followingthe outbreak of the Gaza war, the Houthis began to fire missiles at Israel and attack ships offYemen's coast in the Red Sea, which they say is in solidarity with thePalestinians and aiming to facilitate entry of humanitarian aid into the Gaza Strip.^[222][223]

In June2024, the UAE-backed STC were putting pressure to lease the AdenInternational Port to AbuDhabi Ports. The move was opposed by the Parliament and the public. A jointstatement by 24 members of Shura Council expressed categorical rejection of thelease agreement. Economists said the Emirates was attempting to control theAden Port and limit its activities, in order to keep its own ports active.Governor of Aden, Tariq Salam also said the lease attempt aims to devalue theAden Port and take its international maritime status.^{[224][225][226]} AdenInternational Port had ended its agreement to manage two container terminalswith Dubai Ports World in 2012, due to economic decline and failure to fulfillcommitments.^[227]

Geography

Mainarticle: Geography of Yemen

Yemen covers455,000 km² (175,676 sq mi)^[5] andis located at the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.^[228] Itis bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea tothe west, the Gulf of Aden and GuardafuiChannel to the south, and Oman to the east.

Several RedSea islands, including the HanishIslands, Kamaran, and Perim, as wellas Socotra inthe ArabianSea, belong to Yemen; the largest of these is Socotra. Many of the islandsare volcanic; Jabal al-Tair Island had volcaniceruptions in 1883 and 2007. Although mainland Yemen is in the southern ArabianPeninsula and thus part of Asia, and its Hanish Islands and Perim in the RedSea are associated with Asia, the archipelago ofSocotra, which lies east of the Hornof Africa and is much closer to Africa than to Asia, is geographicallyand bio-geographically associated with Africa.^[229]

Regionsand climate

Yemen can bedivided geographically into four main regions: the coastal plains in the west,the western highlands, the eastern highlands, and the Rub'al Khali in the east. The Tihamah ("hotlands" or "hot earth") form a very arid and flat coastal plainalong Yemen's entire Red Sea coastline. Despite the aridity, the presence ofmany lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malaria-bornemosquitos. Extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes are present. The evaporation inthe Tihamah is so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea,but they do contribute to extensive groundwater reserves.Today, these are heavily exploited for agricultural use.

Near thevillage of Madar about 50 km (30 mi) north ofSana'a, dinosaur footprints were found, indicating that the area was once amuddy flat. The Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment ofthe western highlands. This area, now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food,receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm(3.9 in) per year to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in Taiz and over1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb. Temperatures are warm in the day but falldramatically at night.

The centralhighlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 m (6,562 ft) inelevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadowinfluences, but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensivecropping. Water storage allows for irrigation andthe growing of wheat and barley. Sana'a isin this region. The highest point in Yemen and Arabia is Jabal An-Nabi Shu'ayb, at about 3,666 m(12,028 ft).^[228][231] Yemen'sportion of the Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower, generally below1,000 m (3,281 ft), and receives almost no rain. It is populated onlyby Bedouin herdersof camels.

Thissection is an excerpt from Geography of Yemen § Climate change.[edit]

AlthoughYemen has contributed little to causing climatechange,^[232] itis one of the world's most vulnerable countries to climate change and among theleast prepared to handle its effects.^[233] Aroundhalf of the population is exposed to at least one major climate threat.^[234] Climatechange impacts in Yemen include increasing temperatures, drought,desertification, disease outbreaks and sea level rise. Extremeweather events like cyclones, floods and landslides have beenintensifying in Yemen as a result of climate change. These impacts have alreadyworsened the country's existing waterscarcity issues, decreased agricultural and fishery productivity andaffected the food security and health of Yemenites.^[235]

Yemen is oneof only three countries that has not yet joined the ParisAgreement and has not submitted any Nationally Determined Contributions,although they did submit an intended NDC in 2015.^[236][237] Tohelp the country adapt to climate change, The WorldBank recommends investments in disaster risk management strategies, renewableenergy, water management, soil conservation and climate smart agriculture. However, Yemenfaces challenges in accessing climatefinance due to low institutional capacity and poor stakeholdercoordination.^[238]

Biodiversity

Mainarticle: Wildlifeof Yemen

A SouthArabian relief from the fifth century BC, in Walters Art Museum. On the left side of thisrelief, a lion attacks a gazelle, whilea rabbit triesto jump away from the gazelle's forelegs. On the right, a leopard jumpsdown from rocks onto the back of an ibex; a small rodent fleesthe hoofs of the ibex. Birds in the branches of acacia treesobserve the two scenes.

Yemencontains six terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fogdesert, Socotra Island xeric shrublands, Southwestern Arabian foothillssavanna, Southwestern Arabian montanewoodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red SeaNubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.^[239] Theflora is a mixture of the tropical African, Sudanian plant geographical regionand the Saharo-Arabian region. The Sudanian element—characterized by relativelyhigh rainfall—dominates the western mountains and parts of the highland plains.The Saharo-Arabian element dominates in the coastal plains, eastern mountain,and the eastern and northern desert plains.

A highpercentage of Yemen plants belong to tropical African plants of Sudanianregions. Among the Sudanian element species, the following may bementioned: Ficus spp., Acaciamellifera, Grewiavillosa, Commiphora spp., Rosa abyssinica, Cadaba farinosa andothers.^[240] Amongthe Saharo-Arabian species, these may be mentioned: Panicumturgidum, Aervajavanica, Zygophyllum simplex, Fagonia indica, Salsola spp., Acaciatortilis, A. hamulos, A. ehrenbergiana, Phoenix dactylifera, Hyphaenethebaica, Capparisdecidua, Salvadorapersica, Balanites aegyptiaca, and many others.Many of the Saharo-Arabian species are endemic to the extensive sandy coastalplain (the Tihamah).^[241]

Among thefauna, the Arabian leopard, which would inhabit the mountains,is considered rare here.^[242]

Culture

Mainarticle: Cultureof Yemen

Media

Mainarticle: Mediaof Yemen

Radiobroadcasting in Yemen began in the 1940s.^[243] Afterunification in 1990, the government reformed its corporations and founded someadditional radio stations that broadcast locally. However, it drew back after1994, due to destroyed infrastructure resulting from the 1994 civil war.

Television is the most significant mediaplatform. Given the low literacy rate in the country, television is the mainsource of news. There are six free-to-air channels currently headquartered inYemen, of which four are state-owned.^[244] The Yemenifilm industry is in its early stages; only eight Yemeni films havebeen released as of 2023.

Theatre

Yemenitheatre dates to the early 20th century. Both amateur and professional(government-sponsored) theatre troupes perform in the country's major urbancentres. Many significant poets and authors, like Ali Ahmed Ba Kathir, Muhammadal-Sharafi, and Wajdi al-Ahdal, have written dramatic works; poems,novels, and short stories by Yemeni authors like Mohammad Abdul-Wali and Abdulaziz Al-Maqaleh have also beenadapted for the stage.

There havebeen Yemeni productions of plays by Arab authors such as Tawfiqal-Hakim and SaadallahWannous and by Western authors, including Shakespeare, Pirandello, Brecht, and Tennessee Williams. Historically speaking, Adenis the cradle of Yemeni theatre; in recent decades Sana'a has hosted numeroustheatre festivals, often in conjunction with WorldTheatre Day.

Sport

Football is the most popular sport.The Yemen Football Association is amember of FIFA and AFC. The Yemeni national football team participatesinternationally. The country also hosts many football clubs. They compete inthe national and international leagues.

Yemen'smountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such as biking, rockclimbing, trekking, hiking, and other more challenging sports, including mountainclimbing. Mountain climbing and hiking tours to the SarawatMountains, including peaks of 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and above,particularly that of An-Nabi Shu'ayb,^[228][231] areseasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies. The coastalareas and Socotra provide many opportunities for water sports, such as surfing, bodyboarding, sailing, swimming,and scuba diving. Socotra is home to some of the bestsurfing destinations in the world.

Cameljumping is a traditional sport that is becoming increasingly popular among theZaraniq tribe on the west coast. Camels are placed side to side and victorygoes to the competitor who leaps, from a running start, over the most camels.Tribesmen (women may not compete) tuck their robes around their waists forfreedom of movement while running and leaping.^[245]

Yemen'sbiggest sports event was hosting the 20th Arabian Gulf Cup in Aden and Abyanin 2010. Yemen was defeated in the first three matches of the tournament.^[246]

Architecture

Thissection is an excerpt from Architecture of Yemen § Overview.[edit]

Yemen isnotable for its historic tower-houses, built on two or more floors. Thesehouses vary in form and materials from region to region. They are typicallybuilt of mud (either rammed earth or sun-dried mud-brick),stone, or a combination of both, with timber used for roofs and floors.^[247][248] Insome cases, as at Sanaa, the lower floors are built in heavier stone and theupper floors are built in lighter brick.^[248][249] Mudis sometimes mixed with straw and the walls are sometimes finished with lime.^[248] Coralstone is also used in coastal towns.^[250] Traditionally,the ground floor could be used for practical functions such as agriculture, themiddle floors consisted of various multi-functional rooms, and the top flooroften had a large reception room (mafraj) which enjoyed the best views.^[247][248]

Decorationof houses is often executed with gypsum, lime orsome other plaster.At Sanaa, typical designs consist of bands of geometric motifs on the exteriorcreated with protruding bricks that are whitewashed.^[247] Plasterworkis also found around the windows,^[251] andgeometric or floral motifs can be used in colouredglass within the semicircular fanlights.This style can be seen also be seen at Daral-Hajar, a palace built on a rocky outcrop in Wadi Dahr (15kilometres north of Sanaa), dating to the 1930s, which features rich gypsumdecoration and coloured glass fanlights.^[247]

Somevillages and towns, such as Rada'a,were built around a fortified citadel (e.g. the Citadel of Rada'a), others were encircled by ahigh mud-brick wall (e.g. Shibam), and some were built so that the houses themselvesformed an outer wall along an elevated position (e.g. Khawlan).^[248]

While thesestructures are repaired and restored over time, this architectural style hasremained generally unchanged for hundreds of years.^[247] Theold city of Sanaa is a prominent example which preserves many of these houses.^[249][252] Since1986 it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, although its conservationis threatened by the ongoing Yemeni Civil War.^{[252][253][254]} Theoldest house in the city is believed to one of stone and earth located in theHarat al-'Alami area, as its existence is documented as early as the 14thcentury.^[249]

WorldHeritage sites

Mainarticle: List of World Heritage sitesin Yemen

Among itsnatural and cultural attractions are four WorldHeritage sites.^[255][256] TheOld Walled City of Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut, inscribed by UNESCO in1982, two years after Yemen joined the World Heritage Committee, is nicknamed"Manhattan of the Desert" because of its skyscrapers. Surrounded by afortified wall made of mud and straw, the 16th-century city is one of theoldest examples of urban planning based on the principle of verticalconstruction.^[257]

The Old City of Sana'a, at an altitude of more than2,100 metres (7,000 ft), has been inhabited for over two and a halfmillennia and was inscribed in 1986. Sana'a became a major Islamic center inthe seventh century, and the 103 mosques, 14 hammams (traditionalbathhouses), and more than 6,000 houses that survive all date from before the11th century.^[258]

Close to theRed Sea coast, the historic town of Zabid, inscribed in1993, was Yemen's capital from the 13th to the 15th century and is anarchaeological and historical site. It played an important role for manycenturies because of its university, which was a centre of learning for thewhole Arab and Islamic world.^[259]

The latestaddition to Yemen's list of World Heritage Sites is the Socotra Archipelago.Mentioned by Marco Polo in the 13th century, this remote andisolated archipelago consists of four islands and two rocky islets delineatingthe southern limit of the Gulf of Aden. The site has a rich biodiversity.Nowhere else in the world do 37% of Socotra's 825 plants, 90% of its reptilesand 95% of its snails occur. It is home to 192 bird species, 253 species ofcoral, 730 species of coastal fish, and 300 species of crab and lobster,^[260] aswell as the Dragon's Blood Tree (Dracaena cinnabari).^[261] Thecultural heritage of Socotra includes the unique Soqotrilanguage.

Governmentand politics

Mainarticle: Politicsof Yemen

Yemen is arepublic with a bicameral legislature. Under the 1991 constitution,an elected president, an elected 301-seat Assembly of Representatives, andan appointed 111-member Shura Council share power. The president is the headof state, and the prime minister is the head of government. In Sana'a, a Supreme Political Council (notrecognized internationally) forms a government for Houthi-controlled territory ofYemen.

The 1991constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from atleast two candidates endorsed by at least 15 members of the Parliament. Theprime minister, in turn, is appointed by the president and must be approved bytwo-thirds of the Parliament. The presidential term of office is seven years,and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years. Suffrage isuniversal for people aged 18 and older, but only Muslims may hold electedoffice.^[262]

President Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first electedpresident in reunified Yemen in 1999 (though he had been president of unifiedYemen since 1990 and president of North Yemen since 1978). He was re-elected tooffice in September 2006. Saleh's victory was marked by an election thatinternational observers judged was "partly free", though the electionwas accompanied by violence, violations of press freedoms, and allegations offraud.^[263] Parliamentaryelections were held in April 2003, and the General People's Congress maintainedan absolute majority. Saleh remained almost uncontested in his seat of poweruntil 2011, when local frustration at his refusal to hold another round ofelections, as combined with the consequences of the 2011 Arab Spring, resultedin mass protests.^[199] In2012, he was forced to resign from power, though he remained an importantfactor in Yemeni politics, allying with the Houthis during their takeover inthe mid-2010s.^[264]

Theconstitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern andsouthern legal codes have been unified. The legal system includes separatecommercial courts and a Supreme Court based in Sana'a. Sharia is themain source of laws, with many court cases being debated according to thereligious basis of law and many judges being religious scholars as well aslegal authorities. The Prison Authority Organization Act, Republican decree no.48 (1981), and Prison Act regulations, provide the legal framework formanagement of the country's prison system.^[265]

Accordingto InternationalIDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker,Yemen performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particularweaknesses in political representation, including elected government andeffective parliament.^{[266][267][268]}

Foreignrelations

Mainarticle: Foreign relations of Yemen

Yemen is amember of the United Nations, the ArabLeague, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation,and also participates in the nonaligned movement. Yemen has acceded tothe Treaty on theNon-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

Since theend of the 1994 civil war, tangible progress has been made on the diplomaticfront in restoring normal relations with Yemen's neighbors. In the summer of2000, Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a50-year-old dispute over the location of the border between the two countries.^[269] Yemen'snorthern border had been undefined; the ArabianDesert prevented any human habitation there. The Saudi – Yemen barrier was constructed bySaudi Arabia against an influx of illegalimmigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.^[270] TheIndependent headed an article with "Saudi Arabia, one of the mostvocal critics in the Arab world of Israel's "security fence" inthe WestBank, is quietly emulating the Israeli example by erecting a barrier alongits porous border with Yemen."^{[271][unreliable source?]}

In March2020, the Trump administration and keyU.S. allies, including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, cut off tensof millions of dollars for health care programs and other aid to the UnitedNations' appeal for Yemen. As a result of funding cuts, the UnitedNations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs statedthat the UN agencies were forced to either close or reduce more than 75 percent of its programs that year alone, affecting more than 8 million people.Saudi Arabia had been leading a Western-backed military coalition, includingthe United Arab Emirates as a key member, which intervened in Yemen in 2015, ina bid to restore the government ousted from power by the Houthi movement. TheUnited Nations described the situation in Yemen, where the war killed tens ofthousands of people and left millions on the brink of famine, as the world'sworst humanitarian crisis.^[272]

In January2024, President Joe Biden announced that the United States, Britain and alliesAustralia, Bahrain, Canada and the Netherlands had launched a military assaulton Houthi militant targets in Yemen.^[273]

Military

The armed forces of Yemen includethe YemenArmy (includes Republican Guard), Navy (includesMarines), Yemeni Air Force (Al Quwwat al Jawwiya alYamaniya; includes Air Defense Force). A major reorganization of the armedforces continues. The unified air forces and air defenses are now under onecommand. The navy has concentration in Aden. Total armed forces manning numbersabout 401,000 active personnel, including moreover especially conscripts.

The numberof military personnel is relatively high; in sum, Yemen has the second largestmilitary force on the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi Arabia. In 2012, totalactive troops were estimated as follows: army, 390,000; navy, 7,000; and airforce, 5,000. In September 2007, the government announced the reinstatement ofcompulsory military service. Yemen's defense budget, which in 2006 representedapproximately 40 percent of the total government budget, is expected to remainhigh for the near term, as the military draft takes effect and internalsecurity threats continue to escalate. By 2012, Yemen had 401,000 activepersonnel.

Humanrights

Mainarticle: Human rights in Yemen

Corruption in Yemen is such that it ranked176 out of 180 countries in the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index.^[274] Thegovernment and its security forces have been responsible for torture, inhumanetreatment, and extrajudicial executions. There are arbitrary arrests ofcitizens, especially in the south, as well as arbitrary searches of homes.Prolonged pretrial detention is a serious problem, and judicial corruption,inefficiency, and executive interference undermine due process. Freedom ofspeech, the press, and religion are all restricted.^[275] Journalistscritical of the government are often harassed and threatened by the police.^[177] Homosexuality is illegal, punishable bydeath.^[276]

Yemen isranked last of 135 countries in the 2012 Global Gender Gap Report.^[277] Human Rights Watch reported ondiscrimination and violence against women as well as onthe abolition of the minimum marriage age of 15 for women. The onset of puberty (interpretedby some to be as low as the age of nine) was set as a requirement for marriageinstead.^[278] Publicityabout the case of ten-year-old Yemeni divorcee Nujood Ali broughtthe child marriage issue to the forefront worldwide.^{[279][280][281]}

In 2017,the UN Human Rights Council votedto create a team of experts to investigate suspected breaches of humanitarianlaw and human rights in Yemen.^[282] InDecember 2021, The Guardian revealed, Saudi Arabia used"incentives and threats" as part of a pressure campaign to end a UNinquiry into human rights infringements in Yemen.^[283] InJune 2020, a human rights group revealed the scale of torture and deaths inYemen's unofficial detention centres. UAE and Saudi forces were responsible forsome of the most shocking treatment of prisoners, including being hung upsidedown for hours and sexual torture such as the burning of genitals.^[284]

According to2020 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) estimates, 6.1 million girls andwomen were in need of gender-based violence services. The UNFPA also reported arise in gender-based violence cases amid COVID-19 pandemic, increase in rate ofchild marriages, most acutely among internally displaced persons (IDPs). One infive girls aged 10 to 19 were married in IDP camps, compared to 1 in 8 in hostcommunities.^[285]

The United States Department of State 2013 Traffickingin Persons report classified Yemen as a Tier 3 country,^[286] meaningthat its government does not fully comply with the minimum standardsagainst human trafficking and is not makingsignificant efforts to do so.^[287] Yemenofficially abolished slaveryin Yemen in 1962,^[288] butit is still being practiced.^[289] On22 June 2020, Human Rights Watch wrote an open letter tothe UN Secretary-General on"Children and Armed Conflict" report to improve the protection ofchildren in Yemen and in Myanmar.^[290] Amnesty said, United Nations Security Council musturgently fix its monitoring and reporting mechanism for children affected byarmed conflict.^[291] On14 September 2020, Human Rights Watch demanded an end to the interferencecaused by Houthi rebels and other authorities in Yemen aid operations, asmillions of lives dependent on the aid operations were being put at risk.^[292]

Administrativedivisions

Mainarticles: Governorates of Yemen and Federalization of Yemen

Yemen isdivided into twenty-one governorates (muhafazat)plus one municipality called "Amanat Al-Asemah" (the lattercontaining the constitutional capital, Sana'a).^[293] Anadditional governorate (Soqatra Governorate) was created in December2013 comprising Socotra Island, previously part of Hadramaut Governorate.^[294] Thegovernorates are subdivided into 333 districts (muderiah), which aresubdivided into 2,210 sub-districts, and then into 38,284 villages (as of2001).

In 2014, aconstitutional panel decided to divide the country into six regions—four in thenorth, two in the south, and capital Sana'a outside of any region—creating afederalist model of governance.^[295] Thisfederal proposal was a contributing factor toward the Houthis' subsequent coupd'état against the government.^{[296][297][298]}

1.              Saada

2.              Al Jawf

3.              Hadhramaut

4.              Al Mahrah

5.              Hajjah

6.              'Amran

7.              Al Mahwit

8.              Sanaa Municipality

9.              Sana'a Governorate

10.    Ma'rib

11.    Al Hudaydah

12.    Raymah

13.    Dhamar

14.    Ibb

15.    Dhale

16.    Al Bayda

17.    Shabwah

18.    Taiz

19.    Lahij

20.    Abyan

21.    Aden

22.    Socotra

Economy

Mainarticle: Economyof Yemen

Furtherinformation: Telecommunications in Yemen, Transportation in Yemen,and Internet usage in Yemen

Since itsunification in 1990, Yemen has been one of the poorest countries in the MiddleEast.^[299] Asof 2013 Yemen had a GDP (PPP) of US$61.63 billion, with an income percapita of $2,500. Services are the largest economic sector (61.4% of GDP),followed by the industrial sector (30.9%), and agriculture (7.7%). Of these,petroleum production represents around 25% of GDP and 63% of the government'srevenue.^[4] Afterthe start of the civil war in 2014, its GDP dropped rapidly by over 50%,^[300][301] thanksto the blockade led by Saudi Arabia and an effective embargo on oil exportsimposed by the Houthis.^[302]

Agriculture

Principalagricultural commodities produced include grain, vegetables, fruits, pulses, qat, coffee, cotton,dairy products, fish, livestock (sheep, goats, cattle, camels), and poultry.^[4] MostYemenis are employed in agriculture. However, the role of agricultural sector is limited by therelatively low share of the sector in GDP and the large share of netfood-buying households (97%).^[303] Sorghum isthe most common crop. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes beingthe most valuable.

A bigproblem in Yemen is the cultivation of Khat (or qat), apsychoactive plant that releases a stimulant whenchewed, and accounts for up to 40 percent of the water drawn from the Sana'aBasin each year, and that figure is rising. Some agricultural practices aredrying the Sana'a Basin and displaced vital crops, which has resulted inincreasing food prices. Rising food prices, in turn, pushed anadditional six percent of the country into poverty in 2008 alone,^[304] andled to food riots starting in 2008 in poorer cities.^[305] Effortsare being made by the government and DawoodiBohra community at northern governorates to replace qat with coffeeplantations.^[306]

Industry

Theindustrial sector is centred on crude oil production and petroleum refining,food processing, handicrafts, small-scale production of cotton textiles andleather goods, aluminum products, commercial ship repair, cement, and naturalgas production. In 2013, Yemen had an industrial production growth rate of4.8%.^[4] Italso has large proven reserves of natural gas.^[307] Yemen's firstliquified natural gas plant began production in October 2009.

Exportand import

In 2013,exports totaled $6.694 billion. The main export commodities are crude oil,coffee, dried and salted fish, liquefied natural gas. These products weremainly sent to China (41%), Thailand (19.2%), India (11.4%), and South Korea(4.4%). Imports totaled $10.97 billion. The main imported commodities aremachinery and equipment, foodstuffs, livestock, and chemicals. These productswere mainly imported from the EU (48.8%), UAE (9.8%), Switzerland (8.8%), China(7.4%), and India (5.8%).^[4]

Statebudget

As of 2013,the government's budget consisted of $7.769 billion in revenues and $12.31billion in expenditures. Taxes and other revenues constituted roughly 17.7% ofthe GDP, with a budget deficit of 10.3%. The public debt was 47.1% of GDP.Yemen had reserves of foreign exchange and gold of around $5.538 billion in2013. Its inflation rate over the same period based on consumer prices was11.8%. The external debt totaled $7.806 billion.^[4] Yemenis missing some international support because, as of 2024, it is one of threecountries which have not ratified the ParisAgreement to limit climate change.^[308]

Watersupply and sanitation

Mainarticle: Water supply and sanitation inYemen

A keychallenge is severe waterscarcity, especially in the Highlands, prompting The Times,in 2009, to write "Yemen could become first nation to run out ofwater."^[309] Asecond key challenge is a high level of poverty, making it difficult to recoverthe costs of service provision. Access to water supply sanitation is low. Yemenis both the poorest country and the most water-scarce country in the Arab world.Third, the capacity of sector institutions to plan, build, operate and maintaininfrastructure remains limited. Last but not least the security situation makesit even more difficult to improve or even maintain existing levels of service.

The averageYemeni has access to only 140 cubic meters of water per year (101 gallons perday) for all uses, while the Middle Eastern average is 1,000 m³/yr,and the internationally defined threshold for water stress is 1,700 cubicmeters per year.^[310] Groundwateris the main source of water in the country, but the water tables have droppedseverely leaving Yemen without a viable source of water. For example, inSana'a, the water table was 30 metres (98 feet) below surface in the 1970s buthad dropped to 1,200 metres (3,900 feet) below the surface by 2012. Thegroundwater has not been regulated by Yemen's governments.^[311]

Even beforethe revolution, Yemen's water situation had been described as increasingly direby experts who worried that Yemen would be the first country to run out ofwater.^[312] Inpart due to the 2015 Yemeni civil war, the infrastructure required to buildbetter access to water has been delayed in construction.It is estimated that as many as 80% of the population struggles to access waterto drink and bathe. Bombing has forced many Yemenis to leave their homes forother areas, leaving wells in the new areas under increasing demands.^[313]

Togetherwith partners, UNICEF has advanced its efforts and provided access tosafe and sustained drinking water to 8.8 million people (5.3 million children).It scaled up its emergency WASH assistance in Yemen to ensure sustainable WASHservices through capacity building of local WASH authorities, solarisation ofwater systems and rainwater harvesting.^[314]

Demographics

Mainarticle: Demographics of Yemen

Furtherinformation: List of cities in Yemen

Yemen'spopulation is 33 million by 2021 estimates,^[315][316] with46% of the population being under 15 years old and 2.7% above 65 years. In1950, it was 4.3 million.^[317][318] By2050, the population is estimated to increase to about 60 million.^[319] Yemenhas a high total fertility rate, at 4.45 children perwoman.^[320] Sana'a'spopulation has increased rapidly, from roughly 55,000 in 1978^[321] tonearly 1 million in the early 21st century.^[322]

People

Mainarticle: Yemenis

When thestates of North and South Yemen were established, most resident minority groupsdeparted.^[323] Yemenis a largely tribal society.^[324] Thereare also hereditary caste groups in urban areas such as Al-Akhdam.^[325] Thereare also Yemenis of Persianorigin. According to Muqaddasi, Persians formed the majority of Aden'spopulation in the 10th century.^[326][327]

YemeniteJews once formed a sizable minority with a distinct culture from otherJewish communities in the world.^[328] Mostemigrated to Israel in the mid-20th century, following the Jewish exodus from Araband Muslim countries and Operation Magic Carpet. An estimated100,000 people of Indian origin are concentrated in the southern part of thecountry, around Aden, Mukalla, Shihr, Lahaj, Mokha and Hodeidah.^[329]

Most of theprominent Indonesians, Malaysians,and Singaporeans of Arab descentare Hadhrami people with origins in southern Yemenin the Hadhramaut coastal region.^[330] Todaythere are almost 10,000 Hadramis in Singapore.^[331] TheHadramis migrated to Southeast Asia, East Africa and the Indian subcontinent.^[332]

The Maqil were acollection of Arab Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who migrated westwards viaEgypt. Several groups of Yemeni Arabs turned south to Mauritania,and by the end of the 17th century, they dominated the entire country. They canalso be found throughout Morocco and in Algeria as well as in other NorthAfrican countries.^[333]

Yemen is thebirthplace of the Arabs and the language; Qahtanite Arabs— the original Arabs — originated in Yemen. According to Arab tradition, Ishmael sonof Abraham marrieda woman from the Jurhum tribe.^[334]

Yemen is theonly country in the Arabian Peninsula that is signatory to two internationalaccords dating back to 1951 and 1967 governing the protection of refugees.^[335] Yemenhosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately124,600 in 2007. Refugees and asylum seekers were predominantly from Somalia (110,600), Iraq (11,000), Ethiopia (2,000),^[336] and Syria.^[337] Additionally,more than 334,000 Yemenis have been internally displaced by conflict.^[335] The Yemenidiaspora is largely concentrated in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, wherebetween 800,000 and 1 million Yemenis reside,^[338] andthe United Kingdom, home to between 70,000 and 80,000 Yemenis.^[339]

Languages

Modern Standard Arabic is the officiallanguage, while Yemeni Arabic is used as the vernacular.In al Mahrah Governorate in the far eastand the island of Socotra, several non-Arabic languages arespoken.^[340][341] Yemeni Sign Language is used by the deafcommunity.

Yemen ispart of the homeland of the South Semitic languages. Mehri isthe largest South Semitic language spoken in the nation, with more than 70,000speakers. The ethnic group is called Mahra. Soqotri isanother South Semitic language, with speakers on the island of Socotra isolatedfrom the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland. According to the 1990census, the number of speakers was 57,000.^[342] Yemenwas home of the Old South Arabian languages. The Razihilanguage appears to be the only remaining Old South Arabian language.

English isthe most important foreign language, being widely taught and spoken mostly inthe south, a former British protectorate.^[343]

Religion

Islam isthe state religion. Religionin Yemen consists primarily of two Islamic religious groups. Accordingto a UNHCR report, the Shia "Zaydis make up about 45 percent of thepopulation, Sunnis 53 percent and there are also tiny minorities of other Shiagroups—the Ismaili and Twelver communities."^[345] Sunnisare primarily Shafi'i but also include significant groups of Malikis and Hanbalis. Shiasare primarily Zaydi and also have significant minorities of Ismaili^[346] and Twelver^[346][347] Shias.

The Sunnisare predominantly in the south and southeast which traditionally have lesspopulation. The Zaidis/Shias are predominantly in the north and northwest wherethe vast majority of the Yemeni population traditionally lives whilst theIsmailis are in the main centres such as Sana'a and Ma'rib. There are mixedcommunities in the larger cities.^[348][349] Accordingto WIN/Gallup International polls, Yemen has the highest share of thepopulation identifying as religious among Arab countries, and one of thehighest in the world.^[350]

About .05percent of Yemenis are non-Muslim—adhering to Christianity, Judaism,or Hinduism or having no religiousaffiliation. Yemen is number five on Open Doors' 2022 World Watch List, anannual ranking of the 50 countries where Christians face the most extremepersecution.^[351] Estimatesof the number of Christians in Yemen range from 25,000^[352] to41,000.^[353] A2015 study estimates 400 Christians from a Muslim background reside in thecountry.^[354] Thereare approximately 50 or fewer Jewsleft in Yemen. Some 200 Yemeni Jews were brought to Israel by the JewishAgency c. 2016.^[355] Accordingto a 2020 estimate, as few as 26 Jews remain in Yemen.^[356] However,in 2022 it was estimated that only one Yemeni Jew remained according to aUnited Nations report about the treatment of religious minorities in conflictzones. Despite this, there are reportedly several crypto-Jews thatstill remain in the country.^[357]

Education

Mainarticle: Education in Yemen

The adultliteracy rate in 2010 was 64%.^[358] Thegovernment has committed to reduce illiteracy to less than 10% by 2025.^[359] Althoughthe government provides for universal, compulsory, free education for childrenages six through 15, the U.S. Department of State reports that compulsoryattendance is not enforced. The government developed the National BasicEducation Development Strategy in 2003 that aimed at providing education to 95%of children between the ages of six and 14 years and also at decreasing the gapbetween males and females in urban and rural areas.^[360]

A seven-yearproject to improve gender equity and the quality and efficiency of secondaryeducation, focusing on girls in rural areas, was approved by the World Bank inMarch 2008. Following this, Yemen has increased its education spending from 5%of GDP in 1995 to 10% in 2005.^[177]

According tothe Webometrics Ranking of WorldUniversities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the Yemeni University ofScience & Technology (6532nd worldwide), Al Ahgaff University(8930th) and Sanaa University (11043rd).^[361] Yemenwas ranked 131st in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, downfrom 129th in 2019.^{[362][363][364][365]}

Health

Mainarticle: Healthin Yemen

Seealso: Faminein Yemen and 2016–17 Yemen cholera outbreak

Despite thesignificant progress the government has made to expand and improve its healthcare system over the past decade, the system remains severely underdeveloped.Total expenditures on health care in 2002 constituted 3.7 percent of GDP.^[366] Inthat same year, the per capita expenditure for health care was very low, ascompared with other Middle Eastern countries—US$58 according to UnitedNations statistics and US$23 according to the World Health Organization.

According tothe WorldBank, the number of doctors rose by an average of more than 7 percentbetween 1995 and 2000, but as of 2004, there were still only three doctors per10,000 persons. In 2003, Yemen had only 0.6 hospital beds available per 1,000persons.^[366] Healthcare services are particularly scarce in rural areas. Only 25 percent of ruralareas are covered by health services, as compared with 80 percent of urbanareas. Emergency services, such as ambulance serviceand bloodbanks, are non-existent.^[366]