Cold War
international politics
Written and fact-checked by
Last Updated: May 27, 2025 • Article History
Quick Facts
Date: 1947 - 1991
Participants: North Atlantic Treaty Organization Soviet Union United States Warsaw Treaty Organization
Context: international relations
Major Events: Bay of Pigs invasion Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Berlin crisis of 1961 collapse of the Soviet Union
Key People: Dean Acheson John Foster Dulles John F. Kennedy Kim Philby Ronald Reagan
Top Questions
What was the Cold War?
How did the Cold War end?
Why was the Cuban missile crisis such an important event in the Cold War?
News • Russia Redeploys Nuclear-Tipped Air-to-Air Missiles in Echo of Cold War • May 23, 2025, 7:35 AM ET (Newsweek)
Cold War, the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell in an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between “two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds.” It was first used in the United States by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech at the State House in Columbia, South Carolina, in 1947.
A brief treatment of the Cold War follows. For full treatment, see international relations.
Origins of the Cold War
Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II, the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. The Cold War had solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe.
The struggle between superpowers
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationU.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson (center) calling to order a meeting of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on September 15, 1950.
The Cold War reached its peak in 1948–53. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (1948–49); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953.
Cuban missile crisis
1 of 3
Cuban missile crisisAerial photograph of Medium Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM) Launch Site 1 near San Cristóbal, Cuba, taken on October 25, 1962.
Explore technological innovations of the Cold War2 of 3
Explore technological innovations of the Cold WarLearn about inventions that were created during the Cold War, such as the Internet and different kinds of military equipment.
See all videos for this article
How the Cold War contributed to antibiotic resistance3 of 3
How the Cold War contributed to antibiotic resistanceLearn more about how Cold War medical innovations led to antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
See all videos for this article
From 1953 to 1957 Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat, largely owing to the death of the longtime Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin in 1953; nevertheless, the standoff remained. A unified military organization among the Soviet-bloc countries, the Warsaw Pact, was formed in 1955; and West Germany was admitted into NATO that same year. Another intense stage of the Cold War was in 1958–62. The United States and the Soviet Union began developing intercontinental ballistic missiles, and in 1962 the Soviets began secretly installing missiles in Cuba that could be used to launch nuclear attacks on U.S. cities. This sparked the Cuban missile crisis (1962), a confrontation that brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles.
Wreckage of the U-2 spy plane shot down inside the Soviet Union in 1960. U-2 spy plane incident, U-2 affair, Cold War.
Britannica Quiz
Comprehension Quiz: Cold War
Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty
Nuclear Test-Ban TreatyU.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy signing the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, October 7, 1963.
The Cuban missile crisis showed that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union were ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the other’s retaliation (and thus of mutual atomic annihilation). The two superpowers soon signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. But the crisis also hardened the Soviets’ determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years.
Soviet invasion of Prague
Soviet invasion of PragueCzechoslovaks confronting Soviet troops in Prague, August 21, 1968. Soviet forces had invaded Czechoslovakia to crush the reform movement known as the Prague Spring.
Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. Thus, the Soviet Union sent troops to preserve communist rule in East Germany (1953), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), and Afghanistan (1979). For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (1954–75) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule (see Vietnam War).
Are you a student?
Get a special academic rate on Britannica Premium.
Toward a new world order
What if the Cold War turned hot?
What if the Cold War turned hot?Learn what a war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union—both in possession of nuclear weapons—could have looked like.
See all videos for this article
In the course of the 1960s and ’70s, however, the bipolar struggle between the Soviet and American blocs gave way to a more-complicated pattern of international relationships in which the world was no longer split into two clearly opposed blocs. A major split had occurred between the Soviet Union and China in 1960 and widened over the years, shattering the unity of the communist bloc. In the meantime, western Europe and Japan achieved dynamic economic growth in the 1950s and ’60s, reducing their relative inferiority to the United States. Less-powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to superpower coercion or cajoling.
Berlin Wall opening
Berlin Wall openingPeople from East and West Berlin gathering at the Berlin Wall on November 10, 1989, one day after the wall opened.
The 1970s saw an easing of Cold War tensions as evinced in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) that led to the SALT I and II agreements of 1972 and 1979, respectively, in which the two superpowers set limits on their antiballistic missiles and on their strategic missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons. That was followed by a period of renewed Cold War tensions in the early 1980s as the two superpowers continued their massive arms buildup and competed for influence in the Third World. But the Cold War began to break down in the late 1980s during the administration of Soviet leader Mikhail S. Gorbachev. He dismantled the totalitarian aspects of the Soviet system and began efforts to democratize the Soviet political system. When communist regimes in the Soviet-bloc countries of eastern Europe collapsed in 1989–90, Gorbachev acquiesced in their fall. The rise to power of democratic governments in East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia was quickly followed by the unification of West and East Germany under NATO auspices, again with Soviet approval.
Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev
Ronald Reagan and Mikhail GorbachevU.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan (left) talking with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Moscow, 1988.
Gorbachev’s internal reforms had meanwhile weakened his own Communist Party and allowed power to shift to Russia and the other constituent republics of the Soviet Union. In late 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed and 15 newly independent nations were born from its corpse, including a Russia with a democratically elected, anticommunist leader. The Cold War had come to an end.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
This article was most recently revised and updated by Encyclopaedia Britannica.
nuclear weapon
Table of Contents
Introduction & Top Questions
Principles of atomic (fission) weapons
Principles of thermonuclear (fusion) weapons
The effects of nuclear weapons
The first atomic bombs
The first hydrogen bombs
The spread of nuclear weapons
References & Edit History
Quick Facts & Related Topics
Images & Videos
A test of a U.S. hydrogen bomb in the Marshall IslandsWorld War II: total destruction of Hiroshima, JapanEnola GayM65 atomic cannonTitan IINuclear submarineFissionFission bombNuclear fission and fusionTeller-Ulam bomb design
For Students
World War II: total destruction of Hiroshima, Japan
nuclear weapon summary
Related Questions
Which country had the most nuclear weapons?
What organizations was A.P.J. Abdul Kalam associated with?
When and how did A.P.J. Abdul Kalam enter politics?
Read Next
The First Atomic Bombs infographic, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Japan, United States, nuclear weapon, atomic bomb, World War II, WWII
The First Atomic Bombs Tested and Used During World War II
Atomic cloud formation from the Baker Day explosion over the Bikini Atoll; photo created July 25, 1946. (Test Baker, mushroom cloud, underwater nuclear explosion)
Why Does a Mushroom Cloud Look Like a Mushroom?
Smoke billowing 20,000 feet above Hiroshima, Japan, from the first atomic bomb every dropped in World War II.
70 Years After Hiroshima
Figure 13: A Maxim machine gun, belt-fed and water-cooled, operated by German infantrymen, World War I.
7 Deadliest Weapons in History
Communism - mosaic hammer and sickle with star on the Pavilion of Ukraine at the All Russia Exhibition Centre (also known as VDNKh) in Moscow. Communist symbol of the former Soviet Union. USSR
Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse?
Discover
Lake Mead (the impounded Colorado River) at the Hoover Dam. The light-coloured band of rock above the shoreline shows the decrease in water level in the first few years of the 21st century.
6 Lakes That Are Drying Up
Lusitania sinking, illustration from The War of the Nations (New York), December 31, 1919. World War I, WWI. This image is one of three on the page. (See source file for the other two.)
7 of the World’s Deadliest Shipwrecks
The Colosseum, Rome, Italy. Giant amphitheatre built in Rome under the Flavian emperors. (ancient architecture; architectural ruins)
New Seven Wonders of the World
Shadow of a man holding large knife in his hand inside of some dark, spooky buiding
7 of History's Most Notorious Serial Killers
Periodical Cicada, Adult, Magicicada spp. Requires 17 years to complete development. Nymph splits its skin, and transforms into an adult. Feeds on sap of tree roots. Northern Illinois Brood. This brood is the largest emergence of cicadas anywhere
Why Do Some Cicadas Appear Only Every 17 Years?
Turtle, tortoise, reptile. Uses assets 88582 & 89606
What’s the Difference Between a Turtle and a Tortoise?
Cuban Bee Hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae) single adult male, Zapata peninsula, Cuba, Caribbean.Bee hummingbirds are the smallest birds in the world.
Queen Mab’s Stable: 7 of the Smallest Animals
World History
Wars, Battles & Armed Conflicts
A test of a U.S. hydrogen bomb in the Marshall Islands
A test of a U.S. hydrogen bomb in the Marshall Islands A test of a U.S. thermonuclear weapon (hydrogen bomb) at Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands, November 1, 1952.
nuclear weapon
Also known as: atomic weapon, thermonuclear weapon
Written by
,
•All
Fact-checked by
Article History
Key People: Atal Bihari Vajpayee A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Yuly Borisovich Khariton Philip John Noel-Baker, Baron Noel-Baker David Lange
Related Topics: doomsday machine nuclear electromagnetic pulse tactical nuclear weapons intermediate-range nuclear weapons intermediate nuclear force
Top Questions
What is a nuclear weapon?
Are there treaties to control the proliferation of nuclear weapons?
When was a nuclear weapon first tested?
News • US Warns Iran 'Too Close for Comfort' to Nuclear Weapons • May 16, 2025, 6:57 AM ET (Newsweek)
nuclear weapon, device designed to release energy in an explosive manner as a result of nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or a combination of the two processes. Fission weapons are commonly referred to as atomic bombs. Fusion weapons are also referred to as thermonuclear bombs or, more commonly, hydrogen bombs; they are usually defined as nuclear weapons in which at least a portion of the energy is released by nuclear fusion.
World War II: total destruction of Hiroshima, Japan
World War II: total destruction of Hiroshima, JapanTotal destruction of Hiroshima, Japan, following the dropping of the first atomic bomb, on August 6, 1945.
Nuclear weapons produce enormous explosive energy. Their significance may best be appreciated by the coining of the words kiloton (1,000 tons) and megaton (1,000,000 tons) to describe their blast energy in equivalent weights of the conventional chemical explosive TNT. For example, the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in 1945, containing only about 64 kg (140 pounds) of highly enriched uranium, released energy equaling about 15 kilotons of chemical explosive. That blast immediately produced a strong shock wave, enormous amounts of heat, and lethal ionizing radiation. Convection currents created by the explosion drew dust and other debris into the air, creating the mushroom-shaped cloud that has since become the virtual signature of a nuclear explosion. In addition, radioactive debris was carried by winds high into the atmosphere, later to settle to Earth as radioactive fallout. The enormous toll in destruction, death, injury, and sickness produced by the explosions at Hiroshima and, three days later, at Nagasaki was on a scale never before produced by any single weapon. In the decades since 1945, even as many countries have developed nuclear weapons of far greater strength than those used against the Japanese cities, concerns about the dreadful effects of such weapons have driven governments to negotiate arms control agreements, such as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963 and the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons of 1968. Among military strategists and planners, the very presence of these weapons of unparalleled destructive power has created a distinct discipline, with its own internal logic and set of doctrines, known as nuclear strategy.
Enola Gay
1 of 3
Enola GayThe B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay backed over a pit to be loaded with the first atomic bomb, which would be released on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945.
M65 atomic cannon
2 of 3
M65 atomic cannonThe M65 atomic cannon's debut with a test round during Operation Upshot-Knothole at the Nevada Test Site, May 25, 1953.
Titan II
3 of 3
Titan IIA Titan II rocket launching from its silo.
The first nuclear weapons were bombs delivered by aircraft. Later, warheads were developed for strategic ballistic missiles, which have become by far the most important nuclear weapons. Smaller tactical nuclear weapons have also been developed, including ones for artillery projectiles, land mines, antisubmarine depth charges, torpedoes, and shorter-range ballistic and cruise missiles.
Nuclear submarine
Nuclear submarineUSS Ohio, strategic nuclear submarine of the U.S. Navy commissioned in 1981, carrying 24 Trident ballistic missiles in a double row of vertical launch tubes (shown with hatches open). The average patrol time at sea of Ohio-class submarines is 70 days, and their nuclear reactor cores need replacement only once every nine years.
By far the greatest force driving the development of nuclear weapons after World War II (though not by any means the only force) was the Cold War confrontation that pitted the United States and its allies against the Soviet Union and its satellite states. During this period, which lasted roughly from 1945 to 1991, the American stockpile of nuclear weapons reached its peak in 1966, with more than 32,000 warheads of 30 different types. During the 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, many types of tactical and strategic weapons were retired and dismantled to comply with arms control negotiations, such as the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, or as unilateral initiatives. By 2010 the United States had approximately 9,400 warheads of nine types, including two types of bombs, three types for intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), two types for submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and two types for cruise missiles. Some types existed in several modifications. Of these 9,400 warheads, an estimated 2,468 were operational (that is, mated to a delivery system such as a missile); the rest were either spares held in reserve or retired warheads scheduled to be dismantled. Of the 2,468 operational warheads, approximately 1,968 were deployed on strategic (long-range) delivery systems, and some 500 were deployed on nonstrategic (short-range) systems. Of the 500 nonstrategic warheads in the U.S. arsenal, about 200 were deployed in Europe.
The Soviet nuclear stockpile reached its peak of about 33,000 operational warheads in 1988, with an additional 10,000 previously deployed warheads that had been retired but had not been taken apart. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia accelerated its warhead dismantlement program, but the status of many of the 12,000 warheads estimated to remain in its stockpile in 2010 was unclear. Given limited Russian resources and lack of legitimate military missions, only about 4,600 of these 12,000 warheads were serviceable and maintained enough to be deployed. Of the 4,600 operational warheads, some 2,600 were deployed on strategic systems and some 2,000 on nonstrategic systems. A global security concern is the safety of Russia’s intact warheads and the security of nuclear materials removed from dismantled warheads.
Beginning in the 1990s, the arsenals of the United Kingdom, France, and China also underwent significant change and consolidation. Britain eliminated its land-based army, tactical naval, and air nuclear missions, so that its arsenal, which contained some 350 warheads in the 1970s, had just 225 warheads in 2010. Of these, fewer than 160 were operational, all on its ballistic missile submarine fleet. Meanwhile, France reduced its arsenal from some 540 operational warheads at the end of the Cold War to about 300 in 2010, eliminating several types of nuclear weapon systems. The Chinese stockpile remained fairly steady during the 1990s and then started to grow at the beginning of the 21st century. By 2010 China had about 240 warheads in its stockpile, some 180 of them operational and the rest in reserve or retirement.
Israel maintained an undeclared nuclear stockpile of 60 to 80 warheads, but any developments were kept highly secret. India was estimated to have 60 to 80 assembled warheads and Pakistan about 70 to 90. Most of India’s and Pakistan’s warheads were thought not to be operational, though both countries—rivals in the incipient arms race on the Indian subcontinent—were thought to be increasing their stockpiles. North Korea, which joined the nuclear club in 2006, may have produced enough plutonium by 2010 for as many as 8 to 12 warheads, though it was not clear that any of these was operational.
Berlin
Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Tools
Appearance
Text
Small
Standard
Large
Width
Standard
Wide
Color (beta)
Automatic
Light
Dark
Coordinates: 52°31′12″N 13°24′18″E
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the capital city of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).
Berlin
Capital city, state and municipality
Tiergarten and Mitte skyline
Spree river, Museum Island, Berlin TV Tower and Berlin Palace in Mitte
Brandenburg Gate
Brandenburg Gate
Reichstag
Reichstag
Gendarmenmarkt
Gendarmenmarkt
Berlin Cathedral
Berlin Cathedral
Potsdam Square
Potsdam Square
Flag of Berlin
Flag
Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms
Nicknames: Grey City[1]
"Spreeathen", or Athens on the Spree River[2]
Map
Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
Show Berlin
Show Europe
Show all
Berlin highlighted in Germany
Berlin highlighted in Germany
Berlin is located in Germany
Berlin
Berlin
Show map of Germany
Show map of Europe
Show all
Coordinates: 52°31′12″N 13°24′18″E
Country Germany
State Berlin
Government
• Body Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin
• Governing Mayor Kai Wegner (CDU)
• Bundesrat votes 4 (of 69)
• Bundestag seats 29 (of 736)
Area[3]
• City/State
891.3 km2 (344.1 sq mi)
• Urban
3,743 km2 (1,445 sq mi)
Elevation
34 m (112 ft)
Population (2022 census)[4]
• City/State
3,596,999
• Estimate (Dec 2024)[5]
3,897,145
• Rank 5th in Europe
1st in Germany
• Density 4,109/km2 (10,640/sq mi)
• Urban[6]
4,679,500
• Urban density 1,250/km2 (3,200/sq mi)
Demonyms Berliner(s) (English)
Berliner (m), Berlinerin (f) (German)
GDP[7]
• City/State €207.058 billion (2024)
• Per capita €53,131 (2024)
Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST)
Area codes 030
Geocode NUTS Region: DE3
ISO 3166 code DE-BE
Vehicle registration B
GeoTLD .berlin
HDI (2021) 0.959[8]
very high · 2nd of 16
Website berlin.de
Berlin (/bɜːrˈlɪn/ bur-LIN; German: [bɛʁˈliːn] ⓘ)[9] is the capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and population.[10] With 3.7 million inhabitants,[5] it has the highest population within its city limits of any city in the European Union. The city is also one of the states of Germany, being the third smallest state in the country by area. Berlin is surrounded by the state of Brandenburg, and Brandenburg's capital Potsdam is nearby. The urban area of Berlin has a population of over 4.6 million and is therefore the most populous urban area in Germany.[6][11] The Berlin-Brandenburg capital region has around 6.2 million inhabitants and is Germany's second-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr region,[5] as well as the fifth-biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union.[12]
Berlin was built along the banks of the Spree river, which flows into the Havel in the western borough of Spandau. The city includes lakes in the western and southeastern boroughs, the largest of which is Müggelsee. About one-third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks and gardens, rivers, canals, and lakes.[13]
First documented in the 13th century[9] and at the crossing of two important historic trade routes,[14] Berlin was designated the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417–1701), Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), German Empire (1871–1918), Weimar Republic (1919–1933), and Nazi Germany (1933–1945). Berlin served as a scientific, artistic, and philosophical hub during the Age of Enlightenment, Neoclassicism, and the German revolutions of 1848–1849. During the Gründerzeit, an industrialization-induced economic boom triggered a rapid population increase in Berlin. 1920s Berlin was the third-largest city in the world by population.[15] After World War II and following Berlin's occupation, the city was split into West Berlin and East Berlin, divided by the Berlin Wall.[16] East Berlin was declared the capital of East Germany, while Bonn became the West German capital. Following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all of Germany. Due to its geographic location and history, Berlin has been called "the heart of Europe".[17][18][19]
Berlin is a global city of culture, politics, media and science.[20][21][22][23] Its economy is based on high tech and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, startup companies, research facilities, and media corporations.[24][25] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a complex public transportation network. Tourism in Berlin makes the city a popular global destination.[26] Significant industries include information technology, the healthcare industry, biomedical engineering, biotechnology, the automotive industry, and electronics.
Berlin is home to several universities, such as the Humboldt University of Berlin, Technische Universität Berlin, the Berlin University of the Arts and the Free University of Berlin. The Berlin Zoological Garden is the most visited zoo in Europe. Babelsberg Studio is the world's first large-scale movie studio complex, and there are many films set in Berlin.[27] Berlin is home to three World Heritage Sites: Museum Island, the Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin, and the Berlin Modernism Housing Estates.[28] Other landmarks include the Brandenburg Gate, the Reichstag building, Potsdamer Platz, the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, and the Berlin Wall Memorial. Berlin has numerous museums, galleries, and libraries.
History
Main article: History of Berlin
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Berlin.
Historical affiliations
Brandenburg 1237–1660
Brandenburg-Prussia 1660–1701
Kingdom of Prussia Prussia 1701–1867
Germany North German Confederation 1867–1871
German Realm 1871–1943 >
Greater German Realm 1943–1945
German Empire Empire 1871–1918
Weimar Republic Republic 1918–1933
Nazi Germany National Socialist dictatorship 1933–1945
Berlin Allied-occupied Berlin 1945–1990
Germany from 1990
Etymology
Berlin lies in northeastern Germany, in an area formerly settled by Slavs which thus exhibits many (Germanised) Slavic-derived placenames until today (see below). The word Berlin also has its roots in the language of the West Slavs, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl- ("swamp").[29]
Of Berlin's twelve boroughs, five bear a Slavic-derived name—Pankow, Steglitz-Zehlendorf, Marzahn-Hellersdorf, Treptow-Köpenick and Spandau; furthermore, across the city's 96 neighbourhoods, there are 22 which bear a Slavic-rooted name—Altglienicke, Alt-Treptow, Britz, Buch, Buckow, Gatow, Karow, Kladow, Köpenick, Lankwitz, Lübars, Malchow, Marzahn, Pankow, Prenzlauer Berg, Rudow, Schmöckwitz, Spandau, Stadtrandsiedlung Malchow, Steglitz, Tegel and Zehlendorf.
Prehistory of Berlin
The earliest human settlements in the area of modern Berlin are dated around 60,000 BC.[citation needed] A deer mask, dated to 9,000 BC, is attributed to the Maglemosian culture. In 2,000 BC dense human settlements along the Spree and Havel rivers gave rise to the Lusatian culture.[30] Starting around 500 BC Germanic tribes settled in a number of villages in the higher situated areas of today's Berlin. After the Semnones left around 200 AD, the Burgundians followed. In the 7th century Slavic tribes, the later known Hevelli and Sprevane, reached the region.
12th century to 16th century
Map of Berlin in 1688
Berlin Cathedral (left) and Berlin Palace (right), 1900
In the 12th century the region came under German rule as part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, founded by Albert the Bear in 1157. Early evidence of middle age settlements in the area of today's Berlin are remnants of a house foundation dated 1270 to 1290, found in excavations in Berlin Mitte.[31] The first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209.[32] 1237 is considered the founding date of the city.[33] The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the staple right on the two important trade routes, one was known as Via Imperii, and the other trade route reached from Bruges to Novgorod.[14] In 1307 the two towns formed an alliance with a common external policy, their internal administrations still being separated.[34] In 1326 the territory of Berlin was raided by pagan Lithuanians during the Raid on Brandenburg.
Members of the Hohenzollern family ruled in Berlin until 1918, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of Prussia, and eventually as German emperors. In 1443, Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new royal palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln. The protests of the town citizens against the building culminated in 1448, in the "Berlin Indignation" (German: Berliner Unwille).[35] Officially, the Berlin-Cölln palace became permanent residence of the Brandenburg electors of the Hohenzollerns from 1486, when John Cicero came to power.[36] Berlin-Cölln, however, had to give up its status as a free Hanseatic League city. In 1539, the electors and the city officially became Lutheran.[37]
17th to 19th centuries
The Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648 devastated Berlin. One third of its houses were damaged or destroyed, and the city lost half of its population.[38] Frederick William, known as the "Great Elector", who had succeeded his father George William as ruler in 1640, initiated a policy of promoting immigration and religious tolerance.[39] With the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William offered asylum to the French Huguenots.[40]
By 1700, approximately 30 percent of Berlin's residents were French, because of the Huguenot immigration.[41] Many other immigrants came from Bohemia, Poland, and Salzburg.[42]
Berlin became the capital of the German Empire in 1871 and expanded rapidly in the following years.
Since 1618, the Margraviate of Brandenburg had been in personal union with the Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, the dual state formed the Kingdom of Prussia, as Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, crowned himself as king Frederick I in Prussia. Berlin became the capital of the new Kingdom,[43] replacing Königsberg. This was a successful attempt to centralise the capital in the very far-flung state, and it was the first time the city began to grow. In 1709, Berlin merged with the four cities of Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Friedrichstadt and Dorotheenstadt under the name Berlin, "Haupt- und Residenzstadt Berlin".[34]
In 1740, Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great (1740–1786), came to power.[44] Under the rule of Frederick II, Berlin became a center of the Enlightenment, but also, was briefly occupied during the Seven Years' War by the Russian army.[45] Following France's victory in the War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte marched into Berlin in 1806, but granted self-government to the city.[46] In 1815, the city became part of the new Province of Brandenburg.[47]
The Industrial Revolution transformed Berlin during the 19th century; the city's economy and population expanded dramatically, and it became the main railway hub and economic center of Germany. Additional suburbs soon developed and increased the area and population of Berlin. In 1861, neighboring suburbs including Wedding, Moabit and several others were incorporated into Berlin.[48] In 1871, Berlin became capital of the newly founded German Empire.[49] In 1881, it became a city district separate from Brandenburg.[50]
20th to 21st centuries
Further information: Greater Berlin Act, 1920s Berlin, West Berlin, and East Berlin
Potsdamer Platz in the 1920s Berlin
The controversial 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin under the Nazi rule
In the early 20th century, Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement.[51] In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled, and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, technology, arts, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin,[52] being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.[53]
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. Hitler was inspired by the architecture he had experienced in Vienna, and he wished for a German Empire with a capital city that had a monumental ensemble. The National Socialist regime embarked on monumental construction projects in Berlin as a way to express their power and authority through architecture. Adolf Hitler and Albert Speer developed architectural concepts for the conversion of the city into World Capital Germania; these were never implemented.[54]
NSDAP rule diminished Berlin's Jewish community from 160,000 (one-third of all Jews in the country) to about 80,000 due to emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's Jews were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Starting in early 1943, many were deported to ghettos like Łódź, and to concentration and extermination camps such as Auschwitz.[55]
Berlin hosted the 1936 Summer Olympics for which the Olympic stadium was built.[56]
View from Pariser Platz in June 1945, after the battle of Berlin
Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945)
During World War II, Berlin was the location of multiple Nazi prisons, forced labour camps, 17 subcamps of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp for men and women, including teenagers, of various nationalities, including Polish, Jewish, French, Belgian, Czechoslovak, Russian, Ukrainian, Romani, Dutch, Greek, Norwegian, Spanish, Luxembourgish, German, Austrian, Italian, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Hungarian,[57] a camp for Sinti and Romani people (see Romani Holocaust),[58] and the Stalag III-D prisoner-of-war camp for Allied POWs of various nationalities.
During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed during 1943–45 Allied air raids and the 1945 Battle of Berlin. The Allies dropped 67,607 tons of bombs on the city, destroying 6,427 acres of the built-up area. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[59] After the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to Allied-occupied Germany the sectors of the Allies of World War II (the United States, the United Kingdom, and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet Union formed East Berlin.[60]
US and Soviet tanks face each other. Taken in 1961 at Checkpoint Charlie, during the construction of the Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (painted on the western side) was a barrier that divided the city from 1961 to 1989.
All four Allies of World War II shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed the Berlin Blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[61] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist–Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British and French airlines.
The Berlin Wall bordered with East and West Berlin in 1983
The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989.
The German reunification on 3 October 1990, with flags of all German states at the Reichstag building
The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move the western powers did not recognize. East Berlin included most of the city's historic center. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[62] In 1961, East Germany began to build the Berlin Wall around West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech on 26 June 1963, in front of the Schöneberg city hall, located in the city's western part, underlining the US support for West Berlin.[63] Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners, travel to West Berlin or West Germany was prohibited by the government of East Germany. In 1971, a Four-Power Agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[64]
In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became a reunified city. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the city experienced significant urban development and still impacts urban planning decisions.[65]
Walter Momper, the mayor of West Berlin, became the first mayor of the reunified city in the interim.[66] City-wide elections in December 1990 resulted in the first "all Berlin" mayor being elected to take office in January 1991, with the separate offices of mayors in East and West Berlin expiring by that time, and Eberhard Diepgen (a former mayor of West Berlin) became the first elected mayor of a reunited Berlin.[67] On 18 June 1994, soldiers from the United States, France and Britain marched in a parade which was part of the ceremonies to mark the withdrawal of allied occupation troops allowing a reunified Berlin[68] (the last Russian troops departed on 31 August, while the final departure of Western Allies forces was on 8 September 1994). On 20 June 1991, the Bundestag (German Parliament) voted to move the seat of the German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999, during the chancellorship of Gerhard Schröder.[69]
Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several boroughs, reducing their number from 23 to 12.[70]
In 2006, the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.[71]
Construction of the "Berlin Wall Trail" (Berliner Mauerweg) began in 2002 and was completed in 2006.
In a 2016 terrorist attack linked to ISIL, a truck was deliberately driven into a Christmas market next to the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church, leaving 13 people dead and 55 others injured.[72][73]
In 2018, more than 200,000 protestors took to the streets in Berlin with demonstrations of solidarity against racism, in response to the emergence of far-right politics in Germany.[74]
Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER) opened in 2020, nine years later than planned, with Terminal 1 coming into service at the end of October, and flights to and from Tegel Airport ending in November.[75] Due to the fall in passenger numbers resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, plans were announced to close BER's Terminal 5, the former Schönefeld Airport, beginning in March 2021.[76] The connecting link of U-Bahn line U5 from Alexanderplatz to Hauptbahnhof, along with the new stations Rotes Rathaus and Unter den Linden, opened on 4 December 2020, the Museumsinsel U-Bahn station opened in 2021, which completed all new works on the U5.[77]
The 2006 FIFA World Cup final was held in Berlin
Berlin Hauptbahnhof was opened in 2006
The rebuilt Berlin Palace in 2022
A partial opening by the end of 2020 of the Humboldt Forum museum, housed in the reconstructed Berlin Palace, was postponed until March 2021.[78] On 16 September 2022, the opening of the eastern wing, the last section of the Humboldt Forum museum, meant the Humboldt Forum museum was finally completed. It became Germany's currently most expensive cultural project.[79]
Berlin-Brandenburg fusion attempt
Main article: Fusion of Berlin and Brandenburg
The coat of arms proposed in the state contract
The legal basis for a combined state of Berlin and Brandenburg is different from other state fusion proposals. Normally, Article 29 of the Basic Law stipulates that a state fusion requires a federal law.[80] However, a clause added to the Basic Law in 1994, Article 118a, allows Berlin and Brandenburg to unify without federal approval, requiring a referendum and a ratification by both state parliaments.[81]
In 1996, there was an unsuccessful attempt of unifying the states of Berlin and Brandenburg.[82] Both share a common history, dialect and culture and in 2020, there are over 225,000 residents of Brandenburg that commute to Berlin. The fusion had the near-unanimous support by a broad coalition of both state governments, political parties, media, business associations, trade unions and churches.[83] Though Berlin voted in favor by a small margin, largely based on support in former West Berlin, Brandenburg voters disapproved of the fusion by a large margin. It failed largely due to Brandenburg voters not wanting to take on Berlin's large and growing public debt and fearing losing identity and influence to the capital.[82]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Berlin
Topography
Satellite image of Berlin
The outskirts of Berlin are covered with woodlands and numerous lakes.
Berlin is in northeastern Germany, in an area of low-lying marshy woodlands with a mainly flat topography, part of the vast Northern European Plain which stretches all the way from northern France to western Russia. The Berliner Urstromtal (an ice age glacial valley), between the low Barnim Plateau to the north and the Teltow plateau to the south, was formed by meltwater flowing from ice sheets at the end of the last Weichselian glaciation. The Spree follows this valley now. In Spandau, a borough in the west of Berlin, the Spree empties into the river Havel, which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The course of the Havel is more like a chain of lakes, the largest being the Tegeler See and the Großer Wannsee. A series of lakes also feeds into the upper Spree, which flows through the Großer Müggelsee in eastern Berlin.[84]
Substantial parts of present-day Berlin extend onto the low plateaus on both sides of the Spree Valley. Large parts of the boroughs Reinickendorf and Pankow lie on the Barnim Plateau, while most of the boroughs of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, Steglitz-Zehlendorf, Tempelhof-Schöneberg, and Neukölln lie on the Teltow Plateau.
The borough of Spandau lies partly within the Berlin Glacial Valley and partly on the Nauen Plain, which stretches to the west of Berlin. Since 2015, the Arkenberge hills in Pankow at 122 meters (400 ft) elevation, have been the highest point in Berlin. Through the disposal of construction debris they surpassed Teufelsberg (120.1 m or 394 ft), which itself was made up of rubble from the ruins of the Second World War.[85] The Müggelberge at 114.7 meters (376 ft) elevation is the highest natural point and the lowest is the Spektesee in Spandau, at 28.1 meters (92 ft) elevation.[86]
Climate
Berlin has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb)[87] bordering on a humid continental climate (Dfb). This type of climate features mild to very warm summer temperatures and cold, though not very severe, winters. Annual precipitation is modest.[88][89]
Frosts are common in winter, and there are larger temperature differences between seasons than typical for many oceanic climates. Summers are warm and sometimes humid with average high temperatures of 22–25 °C (72–77 °F) and lows of 12–14 °C (54–57 °F). Winters are cold with average high temperatures of 3 °C (37 °F) and lows of −2 to 0 °C (28 to 32 °F). Spring and autumn are generally chilly to mild. Berlin's built-up area creates a microclimate, with heat stored by the city's buildings and pavement. Temperatures can be 4 °C (7 °F) higher in the city than in the surrounding areas.[90] Annual precipitation is 570 millimeters (22 in) with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Snowfall mainly occurs from December through March.[91] The hottest month in Berlin was July 1757, with a mean temperature of 23.9 °C (75.0 °F) and the coldest was January 1709, with a mean temperature of −13.2 °C (8.2 °F).[92] The wettest month on record was July 1907, with 230 millimeters (9.1 in) of rainfall, whereas the driest were October 1866, November 1902, October 1908 and September 1928, all with 1 millimeter (0.039 in) of rainfall.[93]
Climate data for Berlin (Brandenburg), 1991–2020, extremes 1957–2024
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 15.1
(59.2) 19.2
(66.6) 25.8
(78.4) 30.8
(87.4) 32.7
(90.9) 38.4
(101.1) 38.3
(100.9) 38.0
(100.4) 34.1
(93.4) 27.7
(81.9) 20.9
(69.6) 15.6
(60.1) 38.4
(101.1)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 10.6
(51.1) 12.4
(54.3) 17.9
(64.2) 24.0
(75.2) 28.4
(83.1) 31.5
(88.7) 32.7
(90.9) 32.7
(90.9) 26.9
(80.4) 21.5
(70.7) 14.8
(58.6) 11.2
(52.2) 34.8
(94.6)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 3.2
(37.8) 4.9
(40.8) 9.0
(48.2) 15.1
(59.2) 19.6
(67.3) 22.9
(73.2) 25.0
(77.0) 24.8
(76.6) 19.8
(67.6) 13.9
(57.0) 7.7
(45.9) 4.1
(39.4) 14.2
(57.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) 0.7
(33.3) 1.6
(34.9) 4.6
(40.3) 9.7
(49.5) 14.2
(57.6) 17.6
(63.7) 19.6
(67.3) 19.2
(66.6) 14.7
(58.5) 9.6
(49.3) 4.9
(40.8) 1.8
(35.2) 9.9
(49.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −2.2
(28.0) −1.8
(28.8) 0.4
(32.7) 4.0
(39.2) 8.2
(46.8) 11.7
(53.1) 14.0
(57.2) 13.5
(56.3) 9.8
(49.6) 5.6
(42.1) 1.9
(35.4) −0.9
(30.4) 5.3
(41.6)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −12.0
(10.4) −9.5
(14.9) −5.8
(21.6) −2.6
(27.3) 1.7
(35.1) 6.3
(43.3) 8.9
(48.0) 8.1
(46.6) 3.9
(39.0) −1.3
(29.7) −5.0
(23.0) −8.9
(16.0) −14.2
(6.4)
Record low °C (°F) −25.3
(−13.5) −22.0
(−7.6) −19.1
(−2.4) −7.4
(18.7) −2.8
(27.0) 1.3
(34.3) 4.9
(40.8) 4.6
(40.3) −0.9
(30.4) −7.7
(18.1) −17.8
(0.0) −24.0
(−11.2) −25.3
(−13.5)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 41.5
(1.63) 30.0
(1.18) 35.9
(1.41) 27.7
(1.09) 52.8
(2.08) 60.2
(2.37) 70.0
(2.76) 52.4
(2.06) 43.6
(1.72) 40.3
(1.59) 38.8
(1.53) 39.1
(1.54) 532.3
(20.96)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 15.8 13.9 14 10.9 12.8 12.4 13.4 12.7 11.6 13.6 14.5 16.4 162
Average snowy days (≥ 1.0 cm) 8.4 6.8 2.6 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.4 4.9 24.3
Average relative humidity (%) 85.9 81.2 75.8 67.2 66.9 66.3 67 68.5 76 82.7 87.8 87.5 76.1
Mean monthly sunshine hours 52.6 77.9 126.7 196.4 231.1 232.9 233.7 222.2 168.9 113.8 57.4 45.0 1,758.6
Source 1: Data derived from Deutscher Wetterdienst[94]
Source 2: NCEI(days with precipitation and snow, humidity)[95]
Climate data for Berlin (Dahlem), 58 m or 190 ft, 1961–1990 normals, extremes 1908–present
Cityscape and architecture
Cityscape
Aerial photo over central Berlin showing City West, Potsdamer Platz, Unter den Linden and Alexanderplatz
Potsdamer Platz from above
A memorial to the Nazi book burning by Micha Ullman set into the Bebelplatz
Berlin's history has left the city with a polycentric metropolitan area and an eclectic mix of architecture. The city's appearance today has been predominantly shaped by German history during the 20th century. 17% of Berlin's buildings are Gründerzeit or earlier and nearly 25% are of the 1920s and 1930s, when Berlin played a part in the origin of modern architecture.[98][99]
Devastated by the bombing of Berlin in World War II many of the buildings that had survived in both East and West were demolished during the postwar period. After the reunification, many important heritage structures have been reconstructed, including the Forum Fridericianum along with, the Berlin State Opera, Charlottenburg Palace, Gendarmenmarkt, Alte Kommandantur, as well as the City Palace.
The tallest buildings in Berlin are spread across the urban area, with clusters at Potsdamer Platz, City West, and Alexanderplatz.
Over one-third of the city's area consists of green and open-space,[13] with the Großer Tiergarten, one of the largest and most popular parks in Berlin, located in the centre of the city.
Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Berlin
Further information: List of sights in Berlin and List of tallest buildings in Berlin
Reconstructed Nikolaiviertel, the oldest settlement area in Berlin
Panorama of the Gendarmenmarkt, showing the Konzerthaus Berlin, flanked by the German Church (left) and French Church (right)
James Simon Gallery
Berlin Palace / Humboldt Forum
The Berlin Cathedral at Museum Island
The TV Tower (Berliner Fernsehturm)
Brandenburg Gate at night
The Fernsehturm (TV tower) at Alexanderplatz in Mitte is among the tallest structures in the European Union at 368 m (1,207 ft). Built in 1969, it is visible throughout most of the central districts of Berlin. The city can be viewed from its 204-meter-high (669 ft) observation floor. Starting here, the Karl-Marx-Allee heads east, an avenue lined by monumental residential buildings, designed in the Socialist Classicism style. Adjacent to this area is the Rotes Rathaus (City Hall), with its distinctive red-brick architecture. In front of it is the Neptunbrunnen, a fountain featuring a mythological group of Tritons, personifications of the four main Prussian rivers, and Neptune on top of it. Nearby is the Nikolaiviertel, the reconstructed oldest settlement area in the city.
The Brandenburg Gate is an iconic landmark of Berlin and Germany; it stands as a symbol of eventful European history and of unity and peace. The Reichstag building is the traditional seat of the German Parliament. It was remodeled by British architect Norman Foster in the 1990s and features a glass dome over the session area, which allows free public access to the parliamentary proceedings and magnificent views of the city.
The East Side Gallery is an open-air exhibition of art painted directly on the last existing portions of the Berlin Wall. It is the largest remaining evidence of the city's historical division.
The Gendarmenmarkt is a neoclassical square in Berlin, the name of which derives from the headquarters of the famous Gens d'armes regiment located here in the 18th century. Two similarly designed cathedrals border it, the Französischer Dom with its observation platform and the Deutscher Dom. The Konzerthaus (Concert Hall), home of the Berlin Symphony Orchestra, stands between the two cathedrals.
Charlottenburg Palace
Hackesche Höfe
The Museum Island in the River Spree houses five museums built from 1830 to 1930 and is a UNESCO World Heritage site. Restoration and construction of a main entrance to all museums (James Simon Gallery), as well as reconstruction of the Berlin Palace (Stadtschloss) were completed.[100][101] Also on the island and next to the Lustgarten and palace is Berlin Cathedral, emperor William II's ambitious attempt to create a Protestant counterpart to St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. A large crypt houses the remains of some of the earlier Prussian royal family. St. Hedwig's Cathedral is Berlin's Roman Catholic cathedral.
Breitscheidplatz with Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church is the center of City West.
Unter den Linden is a tree-lined east–west avenue from the Brandenburg Gate to the Berlin Palace, and was once Berlin's premier promenade. Many Classical buildings line the street, and part of Humboldt University is there. Friedrichstraße was Berlin's legendary street during the Golden Twenties. It combines 20th-century traditions with the modern architecture of today's Berlin.
Potsdamer Platz is an entire quarter built from scratch after the Wall came down.[102] To the west of Potsdamer Platz is the Kulturforum, which houses the Gemäldegalerie, and is flanked by the Neue Nationalgalerie and the Berliner Philharmonie. The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe, a Holocaust memorial, is to the north.[103]
The area around Hackescher Markt is home to fashionable culture, with countless clothing outlets, clubs, bars, and galleries. This includes the Hackesche Höfe, a conglomeration of buildings around several courtyards, reconstructed around 1996. The nearby New Synagogue is the center of Jewish culture.
The Straße des 17. Juni, connecting the Brandenburg Gate and Ernst-Reuter-Platz, serves as the central east–west axis. Its name commemorates the uprisings in East Berlin of 17 June 1953. Approximately halfway from the Brandenburg Gate is the Großer Stern, a circular traffic island on which the Siegessäule (Victory Column) is situated. This monument, built to commemorate Prussia's victories, was relocated in 1938–39 from its previous position in front of the Reichstag.
The Kurfürstendamm is home to some of Berlin's luxurious stores with the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church at its eastern end on Breitscheidplatz. The church was destroyed in the Second World War and left in ruins. Nearby on Tauentzienstraße is KaDeWe, claimed to be continental Europe's largest department store. The Rathaus Schöneberg, where John F. Kennedy made his famous "Ich bin ein Berliner!" speech, is in Tempelhof-Schöneberg.
West of the center, Bellevue Palace is the residence of the German President. Charlottenburg Palace, which was burnt out in the Second World War, is the largest historical palace in Berlin.
The Funkturm Berlin is a 150-meter-tall (490 ft) lattice radio tower in the fairground area, built between 1924 and 1926. It is the only observation tower which stands on insulators and has a restaurant 55 m (180 ft) and an observation deck 126 m (413 ft) above ground, which is reachable by a windowed elevator.
The Oberbaumbrücke over the Spree river is Berlin's most iconic bridge, connecting the now-combined boroughs of Friedrichshain and Kreuzberg. It carries vehicles, pedestrians, and the U1 Berlin U-Bahn line. The bridge was completed in a brick gothic style in 1896, replacing the former wooden bridge with an upper deck for the U-Bahn. The center portion was demolished in 1945 to stop the Red Army from crossing. After the war, the repaired bridge served as a checkpoint and border crossing between the Soviet and American sectors, and later between East and West Berlin. In the mid-1950s, it was closed to vehicles, and after the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, pedestrian traffic was heavily restricted. Following German reunification, the center portion was reconstructed with a steel frame, and U-Bahn service resumed in 1995.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Berlin
Berlin population pyramid in 2022
Berlin's population, 1880–2012
At the end of 2023 the city-state of Berlin had 3.66 million registered inhabitants,[5] in an area of 891.3 km2 (344.1 sq mi).[3] Berlin is the most populous city proper in the European Union. In 2021, the urban area of Berlin had a population of over 4.6 million inhabitants.[6] As of 2019, the functional urban area was home to about 5.2 million people.[104] The entire Berlin-Brandenburg capital region has a population of more than 6 million in an area of 30,546 km2 (11,794 sq mi).[105][3]
Historical populationYear Pop. ±%
1721 65,300 —
1750 113,289 +73.5%
1800 172,132 +51.9%
1815 197,717 +14.9%
1825 220,277 +11.4%
1840 330,230 +49.9%
1852 438,958 +32.9%
1861 547,571 +24.7%
1871 826,341 +50.9%
1880 1,122,330 +35.8%
1890 1,578,794 +40.7%
1900 1,888,848 +19.6%
1910 2,071,257 +9.7%
1920 3,879,409 +87.3%
1925 4,082,778 +5.2%
1933 4,221,024 +3.4%
1939 4,330,640 +2.6%
1945 3,064,629 −29.2%
1950 3,336,026 +8.9%
1960 3,274,016 −1.9%
1970 3,208,719 −2.0%
1980 3,048,759 −5.0%
1990 3,433,695 +12.6%
2000 3,388,434 −1.3%
2011 3,292,365 −2.8%
2022 3,596,999 +9.3%
Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.
In 2014, the city-state Berlin had 37,368 live births (+6.6%), a record number since 1991. The number of deaths was 32,314. Almost 2 million households were counted in the city, of which 54 percent were inhabited by a single person. More than 337,000 families with children under the age of 18 lived in Berlin. In 2014, the German capital registered a migration surplus of approximately 40,000 people.[106]
Nationalities
Residents without a migration background in Berlin on 31 December 2020 by district
Residents by citizenship (31 December 2023)[107] Country Population
Germany 2,931,731
Turkey 107,022
Ukraine 62,495
Poland 54,099
Syria 48,301
Russian Federation 37,815
Italy 33,732
India 33,257
Bulgaria 33,256
Romania 28,843
Vietnam 25,851
Afghanistan 22,172
United States 21,743
Serbia 21,305
France 19,484
National and international migration into the city has a long history. In 1685, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France, the city responded with the Edict of Potsdam, which guaranteed religious freedom and tax-free status to French Huguenot refugees for ten years. The Greater Berlin Act in 1920 incorporated many suburbs and surrounding cities of Berlin. It formed most of the territory that comprises modern Berlin and increased the population from 1.9 million to 4 million.
Active immigration and asylum politics in West Berlin triggered waves of immigration in the 1960s and 1970s. Berlin is home to at least 180,000 Turkish and Turkish German residents,[107] making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey.[108] In the 1990s the Aussiedlergesetze enabled immigration to Germany of some residents from the former Soviet Union. Today ethnic Germans from countries of the former Soviet Union make up the largest portion of the Russian-speaking community.[109] The last decade experienced an influx from various Western countries and some African regions.[110] A portion of the African immigrants have settled in the Afrikanisches Viertel.[111] Young Germans, EU-Europeans and Israelis have also settled in the city.[112]
In December 2019 there were 777,345 registered residents of foreign nationality and another 542,975 German citizens with a "migration background" (Migrationshintergrund, MH),[107] meaning they or one of their parents immigrated to Germany after 1955. Foreign residents of Berlin originate from about 190 countries.[113] 48 percent of the residents under the age of 15 have a migration background in 2017.[114] Berlin in 2009 was estimated to have 100,000 to 250,000 unregistered inhabitants.[115] Boroughs of Berlin with a significant number of migrants or foreign born population are Mitte, Neukölln and Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg.[116] The number of Arabic speakers in Berlin could be higher than 150,000. There are at least 40,000 Berliners with Syrian citizenship, third only behind Turkish and Polish citizens. The 2015 refugee crisis made Berlin Europe's capital of Arab culture.[117] Berlin is among the cities in Germany that have received the biggest amount of refugees after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. As of November 2022, an estimated 85,000 Ukrainian refugees were registered in Berlin,[118] making Berlin the most popular destination of Ukrainian refugees in Germany.[119]
Berlin has a vibrant expatriate community involving, among others, precarious immigrants, seasonal workers, and refugees. Therefore, Berlin sustains a broad variety of English-based speakers. Speaking a particular type of English does attract prestige and cultural capital in Berlin.[120]
Languages
Main articles: German language and Berlinerisch dialect
German is the official and predominant spoken language in Berlin. It is a West Germanic language that derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. German is one of 24 languages of the European Union,[121] and one of the three working languages of the European Commission.
Berlinerisch or Berlinisch is not a dialect linguistically. It is spoken in Berlin and the surrounding metropolitan area. It originates from a Brandenburgish variant. The dialect is now seen more like a sociolect, largely through increased immigration and trends among the educated population to speak standard German in everyday life.
The most commonly spoken foreign languages in Berlin are Turkish, Polish, English, Persian, Arabic, Italian, Bulgarian, Russian, Romanian, Kurdish, Serbo-Croatian, French, Spanish and Vietnamese. Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, and Serbo-Croatian are heard more often in the western part due to the large Middle Eastern and former-Yugoslavian communities. Polish, English, Russian, and Vietnamese have more native speakers in East Berlin.[122]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Berlin
Lutheran Bible
Religion in Berlin (2022)[123]
Not religious/other 72 (70.9%)
EKD Protestants 15 (14.8%)
Catholics 9 (8.87%)
Islam 4 (3.94%)
Jewish 1 (0.99%)
Other 0.5 (0.49%)
Clockwise from top left: Berlin Cathedral, New Synagogue, Şehitlik Mosque, and St. Hedwig's Cathedral
On the report of the 2011 census, approximately 37 percent of the population reported being members of a legally-recognized church or religious organization. The rest either did not belong to such an organization, or there was no information available about them.[124]
The largest religious denomination recorded in 2010 was the Protestant regional church body—the Evangelical Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia (EKBO)—a united church. EKBO is a member of the Protestant Church in Germany (EKD) and of the Union of Protestant Churches in the EKD (UEK). According to the EKBO, their membership accounted for 18.7 percent of the local population, while the Roman Catholic Church had 9.1 percent of residents registered as its members.[125] About 2.7% of the population identify with other Christian denominations (mostly Eastern Orthodox, but also various Protestants).[126] According to the Berlin residents register, in 2018 14.9 percent were members of the Evangelical Church, and 8.5 percent were members of the Catholic Church.[107] The government keeps a register of members of these churches for tax purposes, because it collects church tax on behalf of the churches. It does not keep records of members of other religious organizations which may collect their own church tax, in this way.
In 2009, approximately 249,000 Muslims were reported by the Office of Statistics to be members of mosques and Islamic religious organizations in Berlin,[127] while in 2016, the newspaper Der Tagesspiegel estimated that about 350,000 Muslims observed Ramadan in Berlin.[128] In 2019, about 437,000 registered residents, 11.6% of the total, reported having a migration background from one of the Member states of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation.[107][128] Between 1992 and 2011 the Muslim population almost doubled.[129]
About 0.9% of Berliners belong to other religions. Of the estimated population of 30,000–45,000 Jewish residents,[130] approximately 12,000 are registered members of religious organizations.[126]
Berlin is the seat of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Berlin and EKBO's elected chairperson is titled the bishop of EKBO. Furthermore, Berlin is the seat of many Orthodox cathedrals, such as the Cathedral of St. Boris the Baptist, one of the two seats of the Bulgarian Orthodox Diocese of Western and Central Europe, and the Resurrection of Christ Cathedral of the Diocese of Berlin (Patriarchate of Moscow).
The faithful of the different religions and denominations maintain many places of worship in Berlin. The Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church has eight parishes of different sizes in Berlin.[131] There are 36 Baptist congregations (within Union of Evangelical Free Church Congregations in Germany), 29 New Apostolic Churches, 15 United Methodist churches, eight Free Evangelical Congregations, four Churches of Christ, Scientist (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 11th), six congregations of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an Old Catholic church, and an Anglican church in Berlin. Berlin has more than 80 mosques,[132] ten synagogues,[133] and two Buddhist as well as four Hindu temples.
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of Berlin and Berlin Police
German federal city state
Rotes Rathaus (Red City Hall), seat of the Senate and Mayor of Berlin
Since the German reunification on 3 October 1990, Berlin has been one of the three city-states of Germany among the present 16 federal states of Germany. The Abgeordnetenhaus von Berlin (House of Representatives) functions as the city and state parliament, which has 141 seats. Berlin's executive body is the Senate of Berlin (Senat von Berlin). The Senate consists of the Governing Mayor of Berlin (Regierender Bürgermeister), and up to ten senators holding ministerial positions, two of them holding the title of "Mayor" (Bürgermeister) as deputy to the Governing Mayor.[134]
Charlottenburg Town Hall
Rathaus Spandau
The total annual budget of Berlin in 2015 exceeded €24.5 ($30.0) billion including a budget surplus of €205 ($240) million.[135] The German Federal city state of Berlin owns extensive assets, including administrative and government buildings, real estate companies, as well as stakes in the Olympic Stadium, swimming pools, housing companies, and numerous public enterprises and subsidiary companies.[136][137] The federal state of Berlin runs a real estate portal to advertise commercial spaces or land suitable for redevelopment.[138]
The Social Democratic Party (SPD) and The Left (Die Linke) took control of the city government after the 2001 state election and won another term in the 2006 state election.[139] From the 2016 state election until the 2023 state election, there was a coalition between the Social Democratic Party, the Greens and the Left Party. Since April 2023, the government has been formed by a coalition between the Christian Democrats and the Social Democrats.[140]
The Governing Mayor is simultaneously Lord Mayor of the City of Berlin (Oberbürgermeister der Stadt) and Minister President of the State of Berlin (Ministerpräsident des Bundeslandes). The office of the Governing Mayor is in the Rotes Rathaus (Red City Hall). Since 2023, this office has been held by Kai Wegner of the Christian Democrats.[140] He is the first conservative mayor in Berlin in more than two decades.[141]
Boroughs
Main article: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin
Berlin's 12 boroughs and their 96 neighborhoods
Berlin is subdivided into 12 boroughs or districts (Bezirke). Each borough has several subdistricts or neighborhoods (Ortsteile), which have roots in much older municipalities that predate the formation of Greater Berlin on 1 October 1920. These subdistricts became urbanized and incorporated into the city later on. Many residents strongly identify with their neighborhoods, colloquially called Kiez. At present, Berlin consists of 96 subdistricts, which are commonly made up of several smaller residential areas or quarters.[citation needed]
Each borough is governed by a borough council (Bezirksamt) consisting of five councilors (Bezirksstadträte) including the borough's mayor (Bezirksbürgermeister). The council is elected by the borough assembly (Bezirksverordnetenversammlung). However, the individual boroughs are not independent municipalities, but subordinate to the Senate of Berlin.[citation needed] The borough's mayors make up the council of mayors (Rat der Bürgermeister), which is led by the city's Governing Mayor and advises the Senate. The neighborhoods have no local government bodies.
City partnerships
Main article: List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany
Berlin to this day maintains official partnerships with 17 cities.[142] Town twinning between West Berlin and other cities began with its sister city Los Angeles, California, in 1967. East Berlin's partnerships were canceled at the time of German reunification.
Capital city
Berlin is the capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. The President of Germany, whose functions are mainly ceremonial under the German constitution, has their official residence in Bellevue Palace.[143] Berlin is the seat of the German Chancellor (Prime Minister), housed in the Chancellery building, the Bundeskanzleramt. Facing the Chancellery is the Bundestag, the German Parliament, housed in the renovated Reichstag building since the government's relocation to Berlin in 1998. The Bundesrat ("federal council", performing the function of an upper house) is the representation of the 16 constituent states (Länder) of Germany and has its seat at the former Prussian House of Lords. The total annual federal budget managed by the German government exceeded €310 ($375) billion in 2013.[144]
The Federal Chancellery building, seat of the Chancellor of Germany
The Federal Chancellery building, seat of the Chancellor of Germany
The Reichstag, seat of the Bundestag
The Reichstag, seat of the Bundestag
Schloss Bellevue, seat of the President of Germany
Schloss Bellevue, seat of the President of Germany
Prussian House of Lords, seat of the Bundesrat of Germany
Prussian House of Lords, seat of the Bundesrat of Germany
Headquarters of the Federal Intelligence Service
Headquarters of the Federal Intelligence Service
The relocation of the federal government and Bundestag to Berlin was mostly completed in 1999. However, some ministries, as well as some minor departments, stayed in the federal city Bonn, the former capital of West Germany. Discussions about moving the remaining ministries and departments to Berlin continue.[145]
The Federal Foreign Office and the ministries and departments of Defense, Justice and Consumer Protection, Finance, Interior, Economic Affairs and Energy, Labor and Social Affairs, Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, Food and Agriculture, Economic Cooperation and Development, Health, Transport and Digital Infrastructure and Education and Research are based in the capital.
Embassies
Berlin hosts in total 158 foreign embassies[146] as well as the headquarters of many think tanks, trade unions, nonprofit organizations, lobbying groups, and professional associations. Frequent official visits and diplomatic consultations among governmental representatives and national leaders are common in contemporary Berlin.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Berlin
Berlin is a UNESCO "City of Design" and recognized for its creative industries and startup ecosystem.[147]
In 2018, the GDP of Berlin totaled €147 billion, an increase of 3.1% over the previous year.[3] Berlin's economy is dominated by the service sector, with around 84% of all companies doing business in services. In 2015, the total labor force in Berlin was 1.85 million. The unemployment rate reached a 24-year low in November 2015 and stood at 10.0%.[148] From 2012 to 2015 Berlin, as a German state, had the highest annual employment growth rate. Around 130,000 jobs were added in this period.[149]
Important economic sectors in Berlin include life sciences, transportation, information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology, environmental services, construction, e-commerce, retail, hotel business, and medical engineering.[150]
Research and development have economic significance for the city.[151] Several major corporations like Volkswagen, Pfizer, and SAP operate innovation laboratories in the city.[152] The Science and Business Park in Adlershof is the largest technology park in Germany measured by revenue.[153] Within the eurozone, Berlin has become a center for business relocation and international investments.[154]
Year[155] 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Unemployment rate in % 13.6 13.3 12.3 11.7 11.1 10.7 9.8 9.0 8.1 7.8 6.4 8.6 9.1
Companies
Deutsche Bahn, the largest railway company in the world,[156] is headquartered in Berlin.
Deutscher Sparkassen- und Giroverband, the European Union's second-largest financial services group, has its headquarters in Berlin.
Many German and international companies have business or service centers in the city. For several years Berlin has been recognized as a major center of business founders.[157] In 2015, Berlin generated the most venture capital for young startup companies in Europe.[158]
Among the 10 largest employers in Berlin are the City-State of Berlin, Deutsche Bahn, largest railway company in the world,[156] the hospital providers Charité and Vivantes, the Federal Government of Germany, the local public transport provider BVG, Siemens and Deutsche Telekom.[159]
Siemens, a Global 500 and DAX-listed company is partly headquartered in Berlin. Other DAX-listed companies headquartered in Berlin are the property company Deutsche Wohnen and the online food delivery service Delivery Hero. The national railway operator Deutsche Bahn,[160] Europe's largest digital publisher[161] Axel Springer as well as the MDAX-listed firms Zalando and HelloFresh and also have their main headquarters in the city. Among the largest international corporations who have their German or European headquarters in Berlin are Bombardier Transportation, Securing Energy for Europe, Coca-Cola, Pfizer, Sony and TotalEnergies.
As of 2023, Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe, a network of public banks that together form the largest financial services group in Germany and in all of Europe, is headquartered in Berlin. The Bundesverband der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken has its headquarters in Berlin, managing around 1.200 trillion euros.[162] The three largest banks in the capital are Deutsche Kreditbank, Landesbank Berlin and Berlin Hyp.[163]
Mercedes-Benz Group manufactures cars, and BMW builds motorcycles in Berlin. In 2022, American electric car manufacturer Tesla opened its first European Gigafactory outside the city borders in Grünheide (Mark), Brandenburg. The Pharmaceuticals division of Bayer[164] and Berlin Chemie are major pharmaceutical companies in the city.
Tourism and conventions
Main article: List of tourist attractions in Berlin
Berlin Fashion Week
IFA is one of Europe's leading trade shows for consumer electronics.
Berlin had 788 hotels with 134,399 beds in 2014.[165] The city recorded 28.7 million overnight hotel stays and 11.9 million hotel guests in 2014.[165] Tourism figures have more than doubled within the last ten years and Berlin has become the third-most-visited city destination in Europe. Some of the most visited places in Berlin include: Potsdamer Platz, Brandenburger Tor, the Berlin wall, Alexanderplatz, Museumsinsel, Fernsehturm, the East-Side Gallery, Schloss-Charlottenburg, Zoologischer Garten, Siegessäule, Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer, Mauerpark, Botanical Garden, Französischer Dom, Deutscher Dom and Holocaust-Mahnmal. The largest visitor groups are from Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and the United States.[citation needed]
According to figures from the International Congress and Convention Association in 2015, Berlin became the leading organizer of conferences globally, hosting 195 international meetings.[166] Some of these congress events take place on venues such as CityCube Berlin or the Berlin Congress Center (bcc).
The Messe Berlin (also known as Berlin ExpoCenter City) is the main convention organizing company in the city. Its main exhibition area covers more than 160,000 square meters (1,722,226 sq ft). Several large-scale trade fairs like the consumer electronics trade fair IFA, where the first practical audio tape recorder and the first completely electronic television system were first introduced to the public,[167][168][169][170] the ILA Berlin Air Show, the Berlin Fashion Week (including the Premium Berlin and the Panorama Berlin),[171] the Green Week, the Fruit Logistica, the transport fair InnoTrans, the tourism fair ITB and the adult entertainment and erotic fair Venus are held annually in the city, attracting a significant number of business visitors.
Creative industries
For a more comprehensive list, see List of films set in Berlin.
The European Film Academy (logo pictured) was founded in Berlin.
Postfuhramt in Berlin-Mitte, where Ottomar Anschütz held the first showing of life sized pictures in motion on 25 November 1894[172]
The creative arts and entertainment business is an important part of Berlin's economy. The sector comprises music, film, advertising, architecture, art, design, fashion, performing arts, publishing, R&D, software,[173] TV, radio, and video games.
In 2014, around 30,500 creative companies operated in the Berlin-Brandenburg metropolitan region, predominantly SMEs. Generating a revenue of 15.6 billion Euro and 6% of all private economic sales, the culture industry grew from 2009 to 2014 at an average rate of 5.5% per year.[174]
Berlin is an important European and German film industry hub.[175] It is home to more than 1,000 film and television production companies, 270 movie theaters, and around 300 national and international co-productions are filmed in the region every year.[151] The historic Babelsberg Studios and the production company UFA are adjacent to Berlin in Potsdam. The city is also home of the German Film Academy (Deutsche Filmakademie), founded in 2003, and the European Film Academy, founded in 1988.
Media
Main article: Media in Berlin
The new building of Axel Springer SE which is headquartered in Berlin
Berlin is home to many magazine, newspaper, book, and scientific/academic publishers and their associated service industries. In addition, around 20 news agencies, more than 90 regional daily newspapers and their websites, as well as the Berlin offices of more than 22 national publications such as Der Spiegel, and Die Zeit reinforce the capital's position as Germany's epicenter for influential debate. Therefore, many international journalists, bloggers, and writers live and work in the city.[citation needed]
Berlin is the central location to several international and regional television and radio stations.[176] The public broadcaster RBB has its headquarters in Berlin as well as the commercial broadcasters MTV Europe and Welt. German international public broadcaster Deutsche Welle has its TV production unit in Berlin, and most national German broadcasters have a studio in the city, including ZDF and RTL.
Berlin has Germany's largest number of daily newspapers, with numerous local broadsheets (Berliner Morgenpost, Berliner Zeitung, Der Tagesspiegel), and three major tabloids, as well as national dailies of varying sizes, each with a different political affiliation, such as Die Welt, Neues Deutschland, and Die Tageszeitung. The Berliner, a monthly magazine, is Berlin's English-language periodical and La Gazette de Berlin a French-language newspaper.[citation needed]
Berlin is also the headquarter of major German-language publishing houses like Walter de Gruyter, Springer, the Ullstein Verlagsgruppe (publishing group), Suhrkamp, and Cornelsen are all based in Berlin. Each of which publishes books, periodicals, and multimedia products.[citation needed]
Quality of life
According to Mercer, Berlin ranked number 19 in the Quality of Living City Ranking in 2024.[177]
Also in 2024, according to Monocle, Berlin occupied the position of the 17th-most-livable city in the world.[178] Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Berlin number 21 of all global cities for livability.[179] In 2019 Berlin was also number 8 on the Global Power City Index.[180] In the same year Berlin was honored for having the best future prospects of all cities in Germany.[181]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Berlin
Roads
Berlin's transport infrastructure provides a diverse range of urban mobility.[182]
A total of 979 bridges cross 197 km (122 miles) the inner-city waterways. Berlin roads total 5,422 km (3,369 miles) of which 77 km (48 miles) are motorways (known as Autobahn).[183] In 2013 only 1.344 million motor vehicles were registered in the city.[183] With 377 cars per 1000 residents in 2013 (570/1000 in Germany), Berlin as a Western global city has one of the lowest numbers of cars per capita.[184]
Cycling
Cyclists in Prenzlauer Berg, Berlin
Cyclists in Prenzlauer Berg, Berlin
Main article: Cycling in Berlin
Berlin is well known for its highly developed bicycle lane system.[185] It is estimated that Berlin has 710 bicycles per 1,000 residents. Around 500,000 daily bike riders accounted for 13 percent of total traffic in 2010.[186]
Cyclists in Berlin have access to 620 km of bicycle paths including approximately 150 km of mandatory bicycle paths, 190 km of off-road bicycle routes, 60 km of bicycle lanes on roads, 70 km of shared bus lanes which are also open to cyclists, 100 km of combined pedestrian/bike paths and 50 km of marked bicycle lanes on roadside pavements or sidewalks.[187] Riders are allowed to carry their bicycles on Regionalbahn (RE), S-Bahn and U-Bahn trains, on trams, and on night buses if a bike ticket is purchased.[188]
Taxicabs
Mercedes-Benz taxicabs
Taxicabs in Berlin are yellow or beige. In 2024, around 8,000 taxicabs were in service.[189] Like in most of Europe, app-based sharing cab services are available but limited.[190]
Rail
DB Station Potsdamer Platz
Berlin Hauptbahnhof (Berlin Central Station)
Long-distance rail lines directly connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany. the regional rail lines of the Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg provide access to Brandenburg and to the Baltic Sea. The Berlin Hauptbahnhof (Berlin Central Station) is the largest grade-separated railway station in Europe.[191] The Deutsche Bahn runs the high speed Intercity-Express (ICE) to domestic destinations, including Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Stuttgart, and Frankfurt am Main.
Water transport
The Spree and the Havel rivers cross Berlin. There are no frequent passenger connections to and from Berlin by water. Berlin's largest harbour, the Westhafen, is located in the district of Moabit. It is a transhipment and storage site for inland shipping with a growing importance.[192]
Intercity buses
There is an increasing quantity of intercity bus services. Berlin city has more than 10 stations[193] that run buses to destinations throughout Berlin. Destinations in Germany and Europe are connected via the intercity bus exchange Zentraler Omnibusbahnhof Berlin.
Urban public transport
The Berlin U-Bahn (Metro) at Heidelberger Platz station
The Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG) and the German State-owned Deutsche Bahn (DB) manage several extensive urban public transport systems.[194]
System Stations / Lines / Net length Annual ridership Operator / Notes
S-Bahn 166 / 16 / 331 km (206 mi) 431,000,000 (2016) DB / Mainly overground rapid transit rail system with suburban stops
U-Bahn 173 / 9 / 146 km (91 mi) 563,000,000 (2017) BVG / Mainly underground rail system / 24h-service on weekends
Tram 404 / 22 / 194 km (121 mi) 197,000,000 (2017) BVG / Operates predominantly in eastern boroughs
Bus 3227 / 198 / 1,675 km (1,041 mi) 440,000,000 (2017) BVG / Extensive services in all boroughs / 62 Night Lines
Ferry 6 lines BVG / Transportation as well as recreational ferries
Public transport in Berlin has a long and complicated history because of the 20th-century division of the city, where movement between the two halves was not served. Since 1989, the transport network has been developed extensively. However, it still contains early 20th century traits, such as the U1.[195]
Airports
Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER) at night
Berlin is served by one commercial international airport: Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER), located just outside Berlin's south-eastern border, in the state of Brandenburg. It began construction in 2006, with the intention of replacing Tegel Airport (TXL) and Schönefeld Airport (SXF) as the single commercial airport of Berlin.[196] Previously set to open in 2012, after extensive delays and cost overruns, it opened for commercial operations in October 2020.[197] The planned initial capacity of around 27 million passengers per year[198] is to be further developed to bring the terminal capacity to approximately 55 million per year by 2040.[199]
Before the opening of the BER in Brandenburg, Berlin was served by Tegel Airport and Schönefeld Airport. Tegel Airport was within the city limits, and Schönefeld Airport was located at the same site as BER. Both airports together handled 29.5 million passengers in 2015. In 2014, 67 airlines served 163 destinations in 50 countries from Berlin.[200] Tegel Airport was a focus city for Lufthansa and Eurowings while Schönefeld served as an important destination for airlines like Germania, easyJet and Ryanair. Until 2008, Berlin was also served by the smaller Tempelhof Airport, which functioned as a city airport, with a convenient location near the city center, allowing for quick transit times between the central business district and the airport. The airport grounds have since been turned into a city park.[citation needed]
Rohrpost
Main article: Rohrpost in Berlin
From 1865 to 1976, Berlin operated an expansive pneumatic postal network, reaching a maximum length of 400 kilometers (roughly 250 miles) by 1940. The system was divided into two distinct networks after 1949. The West Berlin system remained in public use until 1963, and continued to be utilized for government correspondence until 1972. Conversely, the East Berlin system, which incorporated the Hauptelegraphenamt—the central hub of the operation—remained functional until 1976.[citation needed]
Energy
Heizkraftwerk Mitte power plant
Berlin's two largest energy provider for private households are the Swedish firm Vattenfall and the Berlin-based company GASAG. Both offer electric power and natural gas supply. Some of the city's electric energy is imported from nearby power plants in southern Brandenburg.[201]
As of 2015 the five largest power plants measured by capacity are the Heizkraftwerk Reuter West, the Heizkraftwerk Lichterfelde, the Heizkraftwerk Mitte, the Heizkraftwerk Wilmersdorf, and the Heizkraftwerk Charlottenburg. All of these power stations generate electricity and useful heat at the same time to facilitate buffering during load peaks.
In 1993 the power grid connections in the Berlin-Brandenburg capital region were renewed. In most of the inner districts of Berlin power lines are underground cables; only a 380 kV and a 110 kV line, which run from Reuter substation to the urban Autobahn, use overhead lines. The Berlin 380-kV electric line is the backbone of the city's energy grid.
Health
Charité, Europe's largest university hospital
Berlin has a long history of discoveries in medicine and innovations in medical technology.[202] The modern history of medicine has been significantly influenced by scientists from Berlin. Rudolf Virchow was the founder of cellular pathology, while Robert Koch developed vaccines for anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis.[203] For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine.[204]
The Charité complex (Universitätsklinik Charité) is the largest university hospital in Europe, tracing back its origins to the year 1710. More than half of all German Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine, including Emil von Behring, Robert Koch and Paul Ehrlich, have worked at the Charité. The Charité is spread over four campuses and comprises around 3,000 beds, 15,500 staff, 8,000 students, and more than 60 operating theaters, and it has a turnover of two billion euros annually.[205]
Telecommunication
Main article: Radio and telecommunication in Berlin
Café customers in Berlin Mitte using Wi-Fi devices
Since 2017, the digital television standard in Berlin and Germany is DVB-T2. This system transmits compressed digital audio, digital video and other data in an MPEG transport stream.
Berlin has installed several hundred free public Wireless LAN sites across the capital since 2016. The wireless networks are concentrated mostly in central districts; 650 hotspots (325 indoor and 325 outdoor access points) are installed.[206]
The UMTS (3G) and LTE (4G) networks of the three major cellular operators Vodafone, Telekom Deutschland and O2 enable the use of mobile broadband applications citywide.
Education and research
Main article: Education in Berlin
The Humboldt University of Berlin, the world's first modern university,[207] is affiliated with 57 Nobel Prize winners.
As of 2014, Berlin had 878 schools, teaching 340,658 students in 13,727 classes and 56,787 trainees in businesses and elsewhere.[151] The city has a 6-year primary education program. After completing primary school, students continue to the Sekundarschule (a comprehensive school) or Gymnasium (college preparatory school). Berlin has a special bilingual school program in the Europaschule, in which children are taught the curriculum in German and a foreign language, starting in primary school and continuing in high school.[208]
The Französisches Gymnasium Berlin, which was founded in 1689 to teach the children of Huguenot refugees, offers (German/French) instruction.[209] The John F. Kennedy School, a bilingual German–American public school in Zehlendorf, is particularly popular with children of diplomats and the English-speaking expatriate community. 82 Gymnasien teach Latin[210] and 8 teach Classical Greek.[211]
Higher education
Main article: Universities and research institutions in Berlin
The Free University of Berlin
The Berlin-Brandenburg capital region is one of the most prolific centers of higher education and research in Germany and Europe. Historically, 67 Nobel Prize winners are affiliated with the Berlin-based universities.
The city has four public research universities and more than 30 private, professional, and technical colleges (Hochschulen), offering a wide range of disciplines.[212] A record number of 175,651 students were enrolled in the winter term of 2015/16.[213] Among them around 18% have an international background.
The three largest universities combined have approximately 103,000 enrolled students. There are the Freie Universität Berlin (Free University of Berlin, FU Berlin) with about 33,000[214] students, the Humboldt Universität zu Berlin (HU Berlin) with 35,000[215] students, and Technische Universität Berlin (TU Berlin) with 35,000[216] students. The Charité Medical School has around 8,000 students.[205] The FU, the HU, the TU, and the Charité make up the Berlin University Alliance, which has received funding from the Excellence Strategy program of the German government.[217][218] The Universität der Künste (UdK) has about 4,000 students and ESMT Berlin is only one of four business schools in Germany with triple accreditation.[219] The Hertie School, a private public policy school located in Mitte, has more than 900 students and doctoral students. The Berlin School of Economics and Law has an enrollment of about 11,000 students, the Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology of about 12,000 students, and the Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft (University of Applied Sciences for Engineering and Economics) of about 14,000 students.
Research
The WISTA Science and Technology Park in Adlershof
The city has a high density of internationally renowned research institutions, such as the Fraunhofer Society, the DLR Institute for Planetary Research, the Leibniz Association, the Helmholtz Association, and the Max Planck Society, which are independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities.[220] In 2012, around 65,000 professional scientists were working in research and development in the city.[151]
Berlin is one of the knowledge and innovation communities (KIC) of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT).[221] The KIC is based at the Center for Entrepreneurship at TU Berlin and has a focus in the development of IT industries. It partners with major multinational companies such as Siemens, Deutsche Telekom, and SAP.[222]
One of Europe's successful research, business and technology clusters is based at WISTA in Berlin-Adlershof, with more than 1,000 affiliated firms, university departments and scientific institutions.[223]
In addition to the university-affiliated libraries, the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin is a major research library. Its two main locations are on Potsdamer Straße and on Unter den Linden. There are also 86 public libraries in the city.[151] ResearchGate, a global social networking site for scientists, is based in Berlin.
Culture
Main article: Culture in Berlin
The Alte Nationalgalerie is part of the Museum Island, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Berlin is known for its numerous cultural institutions, many of which enjoy international reputation.[28][224] The diversity and vivacity of the metropolis led to a trendsetting atmosphere.[225] An innovative music, dance and art scene has developed in the 21st century.
Young people, international artists and entrepreneurs continued to settle in the city and made Berlin a popular entertainment center in the world.[226]
The expanding cultural performance of the city was underscored by the relocation of the Universal Music Group who decided to move their headquarters to the banks of the River Spree.[227] In 2005, Berlin was named "City of Design" by UNESCO and has been part of the Creative Cities Network ever since.[228][25]
Many German and International films were shot in Berlin, including M, One, Two, Three, Cabaret, Christiane F., Possession, Octopussy, Wings of Desire, Run Lola Run, The Bourne Trilogy, Good Bye, Lenin!, The Lives of Others, Inglourious Basterds, Hanna, Unknown and Bridge of Spies.
Galleries and museums
For a more comprehensive list, see List of museums and galleries in Berlin.
Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BCE, Egyptian Museum of Berlin
As of 2011 Berlin is home to 138 museums and more than 400 art galleries.[151][229] The ensemble on the Museum Island is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is in the northern part of the Spree Island between the Spree and the Kupfergraben.[28] As early as 1841 it was designated a "district dedicated to art and antiquities" by a royal decree. Subsequently, the Altes Museum was built in the Lustgarten. The Neues Museum, which displays the bust of Queen Nefertiti,[230] Alte Nationalgalerie, Pergamon Museum, and Bode Museum were built there.
Apart from the Museum Island, there are many additional museums in the city. The Gemäldegalerie (Painting Gallery) focuses on the paintings of the "old masters" from the 13th to the 18th centuries, while the Neue Nationalgalerie (New National Gallery, built by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) specializes in 20th-century European painting. The Hamburger Bahnhof, in Moabit, exhibits a major collection of modern and contemporary art. The expanded Deutsches Historisches Museum reopened in the Zeughaus with an overview of German history spanning more than a millennium. The Bauhaus Archive is a museum of 20th-century design from the famous Bauhaus school. Museum Berggruen houses the collection of noted 20th century collector Heinz Berggruen, and features an extensive assortment of works by Picasso, Matisse, Cézanne, and Giacometti, among others.[231] The Kupferstichkabinett Berlin (Museum of Prints and Drawings) is part of the Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin (Berlin State Museums) and the Kulturforum at Potsdamer Platz in the Tiergarten district of Berlin's Mitte district. It is the largest museum of the graphic arts in Germany and at the same time one of the four most important collections of its kind in the world.[232] The collection includes Friedrich Gilly's design for the monument to Frederick II of Prussia.[233]
The reconstructed Ishtar Gate of Babylon at the Pergamon Museum
The Jewish Museum presents two millennia of German–Jewish history.
The Jewish Museum has a standing exhibition on two millennia of German-Jewish history.[234] The German Museum of Technology in Kreuzberg has a large collection of historical technical artifacts. The Museum für Naturkunde (Berlin's natural history museum) exhibits natural history near Berlin Hauptbahnhof. It has the largest mounted dinosaur in the world (a Giraffatitan skeleton). A well-preserved specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex and the early bird Archaeopteryx are at display as well.[235]
In Dahlem, there are several museums of world art and culture, such as the Museum of Asian Art, the Ethnological Museum, the Museum of European Cultures, as well as the Allied Museum. The Brücke Museum features one of the largest collection of works by artist of the early 20th-century expressionist movement. In Lichtenberg, on the grounds of the former East German Ministry for State Security, is the Stasi Museum. The site of Checkpoint Charlie, one of the most renowned crossing points of the Berlin Wall, is still preserved. A private museum venture exhibits a comprehensive documentation of detailed plans and strategies devised by people who tried to flee from the East.
The Beate Uhse Erotic Museum claimed to be the largest erotic museum in the world until it closed in 2014.[236][237]
The cityscape of Berlin displays large quantities of urban street art.[238] It has become a significant part of the city's cultural heritage and has its roots in the graffiti scene of Kreuzberg of the 1980s.[239] The Berlin Wall itself has become one of the largest open-air canvasses in the world.[240] The leftover stretch along the Spree river in Friedrichshain remains as the East Side Gallery. Berlin today is consistently rated as an important world city for street art culture.[241] Berlin has galleries which are quite rich in contemporary art. Located in Mitte, KW Institute for Contemporary Art, KOW, Sprüth Magers; Kreuzberg there are a few galleries as well such as Blain Southern, Esther Schipper, Future Gallery, König Gallerie.
Nightlife and festivals
The Berlinale is the world's largest international spectator film festival.
Berlin's nightlife has been celebrated as one of the most diverse and vibrant of its kind.[242][243] In the 1970s and 80s, the SO36 in Kreuzberg was a center for punk music and culture. The SOUND and the Dschungel gained notoriety. Throughout the 1990s, people in their 20s from all over the world, particularly those in Western and Central Europe, made Berlin's club scene a premier nightlife venue. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, many historic buildings in Mitte, the former city center of East Berlin, were illegally occupied and re-built by young squatters and became a fertile ground for underground and counterculture gatherings.[244] The central boroughs are home to many nightclubs, including the Tresor and the Berghain. The KitKatClub and several other locations are known for their sexually uninhibited parties.
Clubs are not required to close at a fixed time during the weekends, and many parties last well into the morning or even all weekend, including near Alexanderplatz. Several venues have become a popular stage for the Neo-Burlesque scene.
The French Cathedral during the annual Festival of Lights
Hanukkah festival at the Brandenburg Gate
Berlin has a long history of gay culture, and is an important birthplace of the LGBT rights movement. Same-sex bars and dance halls operated freely as early as the 1880s, and the first gay magazine, Der Eigene, started in 1896. By the 1920s, gays and lesbians had an unprecedented visibility.[245][246] Today, in addition to a positive atmosphere in the wider club scene, the city again has a huge number of queer clubs and festivals. The most famous and largest are Berlin Pride, the Christopher Street Day,[247] the Lesbian and Gay City Festival in Berlin-Schöneberg, the Kreuzberg Pride.
The annual Berlin International Film Festival (Berlinale) with around 500,000 admissions is considered to be the largest publicly attended film festival in the world.[248][249] The Karneval der Kulturen (Carnival of Cultures), a multi-ethnic street parade, is celebrated every Pentecost weekend.[250] Berlin is also well known for the cultural festival Berliner Festspiele, which includes the jazz festival JazzFest Berlin, and Young Euro Classic, the largest international festival of youth orchestras in the world. Several technology and media art festivals and conferences are held in the city, including Transmediale and Chaos Communication Congress. The annual Berlin Festival focuses on indie rock, electronic music and synthpop and is part of the International Berlin Music Week.[251][252] Every year Berlin hosts one of the largest New Year's Eve celebrations in the world, attended by well over a million people. The focal point is the Brandenburg Gate, where midnight fireworks are centered, but various private fireworks displays take place throughout the entire city. Partygoers in Germany often toast the New Year with a glass of sparkling wine.
Performing arts
Main article: Music in Berlin
Sir Simon Rattle conducting the renowned Berlin Philharmonic
Berlin is home to 44 theaters and stages.[151] The Deutsches Theater in Mitte was built in 1849–50 and has operated almost continuously since then. The Volksbühne at Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz was built in 1913–14, though the company had been founded in 1890. The Berliner Ensemble, famous for performing the works of Bertolt Brecht, was established in 1949. The Schaubühne was founded in 1962 and moved to the building of the former Universum Cinema on Kurfürstendamm in 1981. With a seating capacity of 1,895 and a stage floor of 2,854 square meters (30,720 sq ft), the Friedrichstadt-Palast in Berlin Mitte is the largest show palace in Europe. For Berlin's independent dance and theatre scene, venues such as the Sophiensäle in Mitte and the three houses of the Hebbel am Ufer (HAU) in Kreuzberg are important. Most productions there are also accessible to an English-speaking audience. Some of the dance and theatre groups that also work internationally (Gob Squad, Rimini Protokoll) are based there, as well as festivals such as the international festival Dance in August.
Berlin has three major opera houses: the Deutsche Oper, the Berlin State Opera, and the Komische Oper. The Berlin State Opera on Unter den Linden opened in 1742 and is the oldest of the three. Its musical director is Daniel Barenboim. The Komische Oper has traditionally specialized in operettas and is also at Unter den Linden. The Deutsche Oper opened in 1912 in Charlottenburg.
The city's main venue for musical theater performances are the Theater am Potsdamer Platz and Theater des Westens (built in 1895). Contemporary dance can be seen at the Radialsystem V. The Tempodrom is host to concerts and circus-inspired entertainment. It also houses a multi-sensory spa experience. The Admiralspalast in Mitte has a vibrant program of variety and music events.
There are seven symphony orchestras in Berlin. The Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the preeminent orchestras in the world;[253] it is housed in the Berliner Philharmonie near Potsdamer Platz on a street named for the orchestra's longest-serving conductor, Herbert von Karajan.[254] Simon Rattle was its principal conductor from 1999 to 2018, a position now held by Kirill Petrenko. The Konzerthausorchester Berlin was founded in 1952 as the orchestra for East Berlin. Christoph Eschenbach is its principal conductor. The Haus der Kulturen der Welt presents exhibitions dealing with intercultural issues and stages world music and conferences.[255] The Kookaburra and the Quatsch Comedy Club are known for satire and comedy shows. In 2018, the New York Times described Berlin as "arguably the world capital of underground electronic music".[256]
Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Berlin
Döner kebab
A plate of Currywurst
Invented in Berlin, currywurst and modern döner are icons of German popular culture and cuisine.
The cuisine and culinary offerings of Berlin vary greatly. 23 restaurants in Berlin have been awarded one or more Michelin stars in the Michelin Guide of 2021, which ranks the city at the top for the number of restaurants having this distinction in Germany.[257] Berlin is well known for its offerings of vegetarian[258] and vegan[259] cuisine and is home to an innovative entrepreneurial food scene promoting cosmopolitan flavors, local and sustainable ingredients, pop-up street food markets, supper clubs, as well as food festivals, such as Berlin Food Week.[260][261]
Many local foods originated from north German culinary traditions and include rustic and hearty dishes with pork, goose, fish, peas, beans, cucumbers, or potatoes. Typical Berliner fare include popular street food like the Currywurst (which gained popularity with postwar construction workers rebuilding the city), Buletten and the Berliner donut, known in Berlin as Pfannkuchen (German: [ˈp͡fanˌkuːxn̩] ⓘ).[262][263] German bakeries offering a variety of breads and pastries are widespread. One of Europe's largest delicatessen markets is found at the KaDeWe, and among the world's largest chocolate stores is Rausch.[264][265]
Berlin is also home to a diverse gastronomy scene reflecting the immigrant history of the city. Turkish and Arab immigrants brought their culinary traditions to the city, such as the lahmajoun and falafel, which have become common fast food staples. The modern fast-food version of the doner kebab sandwich which evolved in Berlin in the 1970s, has since become a favorite dish in Germany and elsewhere in the world.[266] Asian cuisine like Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Indian, Korean, and Japanese restaurants, as well as Spanish tapas bars, Italian, and Greek cuisine, can be found in many parts of the city.
Recreation
The Elephant Gate at the Berlin Zoo
Zoologischer Garten Berlin, the older of two zoos in the city, was founded in 1844. It is the most visited zoo in Europe and presents the most diverse range of species in the world.[267] It was the home of the captive-born celebrity polar bear Knut.[268] The city's other zoo, Tierpark Friedrichsfelde, was founded in 1955.
Berlin's Botanischer Garten includes the Botanic Museum Berlin. With an area of 43 hectares (110 acres) and around 22,000 different plant species, it is one of the largest and most diverse collections of botanical life in the world. Other gardens in the city include the Britzer Garten, and the Gärten der Welt (Gardens of the World) in Marzahn.[269]
The Victory Column in Tiergarten
The Tiergarten park in Mitte, with landscape design by Peter Joseph Lenné, is one of Berlin's largest and most popular parks.[270] In Kreuzberg, the Viktoriapark provides a viewing point over the southern part of inner-city Berlin. Treptower Park, beside the Spree in Treptow, features a large Soviet War Memorial. The Volkspark in Friedrichshain, which opened in 1848, is the oldest park in the city, with monuments, a summer outdoor cinema and several sports areas.[271] Tempelhofer Feld, the site of the former city airport, is the world's largest inner-city open space.[272]
Potsdam is on the southwestern periphery of Berlin. The city was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser, until 1918. The area around Potsdam in particular Sanssouci is known for a series of interconnected lakes and cultural landmarks. The Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin are the largest World Heritage Site in Germany.[224]
Berlin is also well known for its numerous cafés, street musicians, beach bars along the Spree River, flea markets, boutique shops and pop-up stores, which are a source for recreation and leisure.[273]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Berlin
The Olympiastadion hosted the 1936 Summer Olympics and the 2006 FIFA World Cup final.
The Berlin Marathon is the current second world record course (world record course is as of August 2024 Chicago Marathon).
Uber Arena (formerly Mercedes-Benz Arena)
Berlin has established a high-profile as a host city of major international sporting events.[274] The city hosted the 1936 Summer Olympics and was the host city for the 2006 FIFA World Cup final.[275] The World Athletics Championships was held at Olympiastadion in 2009 and 2025.[276] The city hosted the Euroleague Final Four basketball competition in 2009 and 2016,[277] and was one of the hosts of FIBA EuroBasket 2015. In 2015 Berlin was the venue for the UEFA Champions League Final. The city bid to host the 2000 Summer Olympics but lost to Sydney.[278]
Berlin hosted the 2023 Special Olympics World Summer Games. This is the first time Germany has ever hosted the Special Olympics World Games.[279]
The annual Berlin Marathon – a course that holds the most top-10 world record runs – and the ISTAF are well-established athletic events in the city.[280] The Mellowpark in Köpenick is one of the biggest skate and BMX parks in Europe.[281] A fan fest at Brandenburg Gate, which attracts several hundreds of thousands of spectators, has become popular during international football competitions, such as the UEFA European Championship.[282]
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who is often hailed as the "father of modern gymnastics", invented the horizontal bar, parallel bars, rings, and the vault around 1811 in Berlin.[283][284][285] Jahn's Turners movement, first realized at Volkspark Hasenheide, was the origin of modern sports clubs.[286] In 2013, around 600,000 Berliners were registered in one of the more than 2,300 sport and fitness clubs.[287] The city of Berlin operates more than 60 public indoor and outdoor swimming pools.[288] Berlin is the largest Olympic training center in Germany, with around 500 top athletes (15% of all German top athletes) being based there. Forty-seven elite athletes participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Berliners would achieve seven gold, twelve silver, and three bronze medals.[289]
Several professional clubs representing the most important spectator team sports in Germany are based in Berlin. The oldest and most popular first-division team based in Berlin is the football club Hertha BSC.[290] The team represented Berlin as a founding member of the Bundesliga in 1963. Other professional team sport clubs include:
Club(s) Sport(s) Founded League(s) Venue(s)
1. FC Union Berlin[291] Football 1966 Bundesliga Stadion An der Alten Försterei
Hertha BSC[290] Football 1892 2. Bundesliga Olympiastadion
ALBA Berlin[292] Basketball 1991 BBL Uber Arena
Berlin Thunder[293] American football 2021 ELF Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark
Eisbären Berlin[294] Ice hockey 1954 DEL Uber Arena
Füchse Berlin[295] Handball 1891 HBL Max-Schmeling-Halle
Berlin Recycling Volleys Volleyball 1991 Bundesliga Max-Schmeling-Halle
Berliner Hockey Club Lacrosse 2005 Bundesliga Ernst-Reuter-Feld
See also
List of fiction set in Berlin
List of honorary citizens of Berlin
List of people from Berlin
List of songs about Berlin
References
Citations
"Nicknames For Berlin (Popular, Cute, Funny & Unique)". LetsLearnSlang.com. 14 May 2023. Archived from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
"Gilly & Schinkel and Athens on the Spree: Berlin Architecture 1790–1840 with Barry Bergdoll". Institute of Classical Architecture & Art. 1 September 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
"Amt für Statistik Berlin Brandenburg – Statistiken". Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg (in German). Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
*www.zensus2022.de*"Release of results (Census 15.05.2022)". www.destatis.de. DESTATIS. 25 June 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
"Population by nationality and federal states". www.destatis.de. DESTATIS. 10 January 2025. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
"Germany: Urban Agglomerations". www.citypopulation.de. CityPopulation. Retrieved 22 January 2025.
"Bruttoinlandsprodukt, Bruttowertschöpfung" [Gross domestic product, gross value added]. statistikportal.de (in German). Statistisches Bundesamt Obere Bundesbehörde im Geschäftsbereich des Bundesministeriums des Innern und für Heimat. 28 March 2025. Retrieved 8 April 2025.
"Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf; Mangold, Max (2015). Das Aussprachewörterbuch (7th ed.). Duden. p. 229. ISBN 9783411040674.
Milbradt, Friederike (6 February 2019). "Deutschland: Die größten Städte" (in German). Die Zeit (Magazin). Archived from the original on 13 February 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
"Einwohnerzahlen deutscher Metropolregionen 2022". Statista (in German). Archived from the original on 19 August 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
"Daten und Fakten zur Hauptstadtregion". www.berlin-brandenburg.de. 4 October 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
Senatsverwaltung für Umwelt, Verkehr und Klimaschutz Berlin, Referat Freiraumplanung und Stadtgrün. "Anteil öffentlicher Grünflächen in Berlin" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
"Niederlagsrecht" [Settlement rights] (in German). Verein für die Geschichte Berlins. August 2004. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
"Topographies of Class: Modern Architecture and Mass Society in Weimar Berlin (Social History, Popular Culture and Politics in Germany)". www.h-net.org. September 2009. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
"Berlin Wall". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 June 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"The World from Berlin: The Heart of Europe". Der Spiegel. 28 December 2006.
"Discovering Berlin: A City in the Heart of Europe". 7 March 2024.
Halliday, Fred (19 May 2005). "Berlin, heart of Europe". openDemocracy.
"Berlin – Capital of Germany". German Embassy in Washington. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
Davies, Catriona (10 April 2010). "Revealed: Cities that rule the world – and those on the rise". CNN. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2010.
Sifton, Sam (31 December 1969). "Berlin, the big canvas". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 April 2013. Retrieved 18 August 2008. See also: "Sites and situations of leading cities in cultural globalisations/Media". GaWC Research Bulletin 146. Archived from the original on 2 October 2009. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"Global Power City Index 2009" (PDF). Institute for Urban Strategies at the Mori Memorial Foundation. 22 October 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2009.
"ICCA publishes top 20 country and city rankings 2007". ICCA. Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"Berlin City of Design" (Press release). UNESCO. 2005. Archived from the original on 28 December 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"Berlin Beats Rome as Tourist Attraction as Hordes Descend". Bloomberg L.P. 4 September 2014. Archived from the original on 11 September 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
"Hollywood Helps Revive Berlin's Former Movie Glory". Deutsche Welle. 9 August 2008. Archived from the original on 13 August 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"World Heritage Site Museumsinsel". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
Berger, Dieter (1999). Geographische Namen in Deutschland. Bibliographisches Institut. ISBN 9783411062522.
"Die Geschichte Berlins: Zeittafel & Fakten". 11 May 2022. Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
Thomas Lackmann (4 January 2015). "Berliner Stadtmitte: Was aus den Fundamenten der mittelalterlichen Gerichtslaube wird" (in German). Tagesspiegel. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
"Zitadelle Spandau". BerlinOnline Stadtportal GmbH & Co. KG. 2002. Archived from the original on 12 June 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"The medieval trading center". BerlinOnline Stadtportal GmbH & Co. KG. Archived from the original on 31 July 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
Stöver B. Geschichte Berlins Verlag CH Beck 2010 ISBN 9783406600678
Komander, Gerhild H. M. (November 2004). "Berliner Unwillen" [Berlin unwillingness] (in German). Verein für die Geschichte Berlins e. V. Archived from the original on 19 September 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
"The electors' residence". BerlinOnline Stadtportal GmbH & Co. KG. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
"Berlin Cathedral". SMPProtein. Archived from the original on 18 August 2006. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"Brandenburg during the 30 Years War". World History at KMLA. Archived from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
Carlyle, Thomas (1853). Fraser's Magazine. J. Fraser. p. 63. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
Plaut, W. Gunther (1 January 1995). Asylum: A Moral Dilemma. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-275-95196-2. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Gray, Jeremy (2007). Germany. Lonely Planet. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-74059-988-7. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Cybriwsky, Roman Adrian (23 May 2013). Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-61069-248-9. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Horlemann, Bernd (Hrsg.), Mende, Hans-Jürgen (Hrsg.): Berlin 1994. Taschenkalender. Edition Luisenstadt Berlin, Nr. 01280.
Zaide, Gregorio F. (1965). World History. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 273. ISBN 978-971-23-1472-8. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, James; Jacob, Margaret; Von Laue, Theodore (1 January 2012). Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. Cengage Learning. p. 444. ISBN 978-1-133-70864-3. Archived from the original on 14 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Lewis, Peter B. (15 February 2013). Arthur Schopenhauer. Reaktion Books. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-78023-069-6. Archived from the original on 14 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Harvard Student Agencies Inc. Staff; Harvard Student Agencies, Inc. (28 December 2010). Let's Go Berlin, Prague & Budapest: The Student Travel Guide. Avalon Travel. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-59880-914-5. Archived from the original on 14 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Andrea Schulte-Peevers (15 September 2010). Lonel Berlin. Lonely Planet. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-74220-407-9. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Stöver, Bernd (2 October 2013). Berlin: A Short History. C.H.Beck. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-406-65633-0. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Strassmann, W. Paul (15 June 2008). The Strassmanns: Science, Politics and Migration in Turbulent Times (1793–1993). Berghahn Books. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-84545-416-6. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
Jack Holland; John Gawthrop (2001). The Rough Guide to Berlin. Rough Guides. p. 361. ISBN 978-1-85828-682-2.
Francis, Matthew (3 March 2017). "How Albert Einstein Used His Fame to Denounce American Racism". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921". Nobel Prize. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
Donath, Matthias (2006). Architecture in Berlin 1933–1945: A Guide Through Nazi Berlin. Germany: Lukas Verlag. p. 7. ISBN 9783936872934.
"The Jewish Community of Berlin". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
1936 Summer Olympics official report. Archived 25 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine Volume 1. pp. 141–9, 154–62. Accessed 17 October 2010.
Megargee, Geoffrey P. (2009). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume I. Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. pp. 1268–1291. ISBN 978-0-253-35328-3.
"Lager für Sinti und Roma in Berlin-Marzahn". Bundesarchiv.de (in German). Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
Micheal Clodfelter (2002), Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 (2nd ed.), McFarland & Company, ISBN 9780786412044
Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Benz (27 April 2005). "Berlin – auf dem Weg zur geteilten Stadt" [Berlin – on the way to a divided city] (in German). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
"Berlin Airlift / Blockade". Western Allies Berlin. Archived from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"Berlin after 1945". BerlinOnline Stadtportal GmbH & Co. KG. Archived from the original on 12 April 2009. Retrieved 8 April 2009.
Andreas Daum, Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-85824-3, pp. 125‒56, 223‒26.
"Ostpolitik: The Quadripartite Agreement of September 3, 1971". U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany. 1996. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
Berlin ‒ Washington, 1800‒2000: Capital Cities, Cultural Representation, and National Identities, ed. Andreas Daum and Christof Mauch. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 23‒27.
"AGI". AGI. Archived from the original on 21 August 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
"Berlin Mayoral Contest Has Many Uncertainties". The New York Times. 1 December 1990. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
Kinzer, Stephan (19 June 1994). "Allied Soldiers March to Say Farewell to Berlin". The New York Times. New York City. Archived from the original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
"When Did Germany's Capital Move to Berlin?". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2023.
"Bezirke or Boroughs, Berlin, Germany, 2001 – Digital Maps and Geospatial Data | Princeton University". maps.princeton.edu. Archived from the original on 21 August 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
"Zidane off as Italy win World Cup". 9 July 2006. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
"IS reklamiert Attacke auf Weihnachtsmarkt für sich" [IS recalls attack on Christmas market for itself]. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). 20 December 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
"Berlin attack: First aider dies 5 years after Christmas market murders". BBC. 26 October 2021. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
"Protests against far-right politics draw thousands – DW – 10/13/2018". dw.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
Gardner, Nicky; Kries, Susanne (8 November 2020). "Berlin's Tegel airport: A love letter as it prepares to close". The Independent (in German). Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
Jacobs, Stefan (29 January 2021). "BER schließt Terminal in Schönefeld am 23. Februar" [BER closes the terminal in Schönefeld on February 23]. Der Tagesspiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
"BVG will verlängerte U5 am 4. Dezember eröffnen" [BVG wants to open the extended U5 on December 4th]. rbb24 (in German). 24 August 2020. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
"Humboldt Forum will zunächst nur digital eröffnen" [Humboldt Forum will initially only open digitally]. Der Tagesspiegel (in German). 27 November 2020. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
"Completed Humboldt Forum opens in Berlin – DW – 09/16/2022". dw.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany] (Article 29) (in German). Parlamentarischer Rat. 24 May 1949. "Art 29 GG – Einzelnorm". Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany] (Einzelnorm 118a) (in German). Bundestag. 27 October 1994. "Art 118a GG – Einzelnorm". Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 15 April 2022.
"LÄNDERFUSION / FUSIONSVERTRAG (1995)". 2004. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
"Die Brandenburger wollen keine Berliner Verhältnisse". Tagesspiegel (in German). 4 May 2016. Archived from the original on 11 March 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
"Satellite Image Berlin". Google Maps. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
Triantafillou, Nikolaus (27 January 2015). "Berlin hat eine neue Spitze" [Berlin has a new top] (in German). Qiez. Archived from the original on 22 July 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
Jacobs, Stefan (22 February 2015). "Der höchste Berg von Berlin ist neuerdings in Pankow" [The tallest mountain in Berlin is now in Pankow]. Der Tagesspiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 19 May 2015. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
"Berlin, Germany Köppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase)". Weatherbase. Archived from the original on 30 January 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
"Berlin, Germany Climate Summary". Weatherbase. Archived from the original on 29 June 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
Elkins, Dorothy; Elkins, T. H.; Hofmeister, B. (4 August 2005). Berlin: The Spatial Structure of a Divided City. Routledge. ISBN 9781135835057. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
"weather.com". weather.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2007. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Climate figures". World Weather Information Service. Archived from the original on 17 August 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
"Temperaturmonatsmittel BERLIN-TEMPELHOF 1701- 1993". old.wetterzentrale.de. Archived from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
"Niederschlagsmonatssummen BERLIN-DAHLEM 1848– 1990". old.wetterzentrale.de. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
"Wetter und Klima – Deutscher Wetterdienst – CDC (Climate Data Center)". www.dwd.de. Archived from the original on 19 June 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2022.
"World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020: Berlin-Brandenburg" (CSV). National Oceanic and Atmosphric Administration. Retrieved 11 April 2024. "WMO number: 10385"
"Berlin (10381) – WMO Weather Station". NOAA. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2019. Archived 30 January 2019, at the Wayback Machine
"Berliner Extremwerte". Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
"Alt- oder Neubau? So wohnt Berlin". Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
"Berlin Modernism Housing Estates". Archived from the original on 28 February 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
"Neumann: Stadtschloss wird teurer" [Neumann: Palace is getting more expensive]. Berliner Zeitung (in German). 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Jähner (19 May 2010). "Das Pathos der Berliner Republik" [The pathos of the Berlin republic]. Berliner Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Construction and redevelopment since 1990". Senate Department of Urban Development. Archived from the original on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
Ouroussoff, Nicolai (9 May 2005). "A Forest of Pillars, Recalling the Unimaginable". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2008.
Population on 1 January by age groups and sex – functional urban areas, Eurostat Archived 3 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
"Initiativkreis Europäische Metropolregionen in Deutschland: Berlin-Brandenburg". www.deutsche-metropolregionen.org. 31 August 2020. Archived from the original on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2013.
statistics Berlin Brandenburg Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. http://www.statistik-berlin-brandenburg.de Retrieved 10 October 2016.
"Statistischer Bericht: Einwohnerregisterstatistik Berlin 31. Dezember 2023" [Statistical Report: Residents in the state of Berlin on 31 December 2019] (PDF). Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg (in German). pp. 18–22. Retrieved 14 June 2024.
"How Berlin Became the World's Second Turkish..." Culture Trip. 6 March 2018. Archived from the original on 23 August 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
Dmitry Bulgakov (11 March 2001). "Berlin is speaking Russians' language". Russiajournal.com. Archived from the original on 6 April 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
Heilwagen, Oliver (28 October 2001). "Berlin wird farbiger. Die Afrikaner kommen – Nachrichten Welt am Sonntag – Welt Online". Die Welt (in German). Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
"Zweites Afrika-Magazin "Afrikanisches Viertel" erschienen Bezirksbürgermeister Dr. Christian Hanke ist Schirmherr" (Press release). Berlin: berlin.de. 6 February 2009. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 27 September 2016.
"Hummus in the Prenzlauer Berg". The Jewish Week. 12 December 2014. Archived from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
"457 000 Ausländer aus 190 Staaten in Berlin gemeldet" [457,000 Foreigners from 190 Countries Registered in Berlin]. Berliner Morgenpost (in German). 5 February 2011. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2019.
Fahrun, Joachim (10 September 2014). "Bald jeder dritte Berliner hat einen Migrationshintergrund". Berliner Morgenpost (in German). Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
Von Andrea Dernbach (23 February 2009). "Migration: Berlin will illegalen Einwanderern helfen – Deutschland – Politik – Tagesspiegel". Der Tagesspiegel Online. Tagesspiegel.de. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
"Zahl der Ausländer in Berlin steigt auf Rekordhoch". Junge Freiheit (in German). 8 September 2016. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
"Berlin: Inside Europe's capital of Arab culture". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 27 October 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
"Berlin to create 10,000 extra beds for Ukrainian refugees – DW – 11/20/2022". dw.com. Archived from the original on 23 August 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
"Survey of Ukrainian War Refugees". Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community. Archived from the original on 23 August 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
Raymond Hickey, ed. (5 December 2019). English in the German-Speaking World. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. ISBN 9781108488099.
European Commission. "Official Languages". Archived from the original on 26 September 2014. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
"how many- languages are spoken in berlin". Morgenpost.de. 18 May 2010. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
Statistischer Bericht Einwohnerinnen und Einwohner im Land Berlin am 31 Dezember 2022 Archived 14 April 2024 at the Wayback Machine (PDF). Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
"Zensus 2011 – Bevölkerung und Haushalte – Bundesland Berlin" (PDF). Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg (in German). pp. 6–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
"Kirchenmitgliederzahlen am 31.12.2010" [Church membership on 31 December 2010] (PDF) (in German). Protestant Church in Germany. November 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
"Die kleine Berlin–Statistik 2010" [The small Berlin statistic 2010] (PDF) (in German). Amt für Statistik Berlin–Brandenburg. December 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
"Statistisches Jahrbuch für Berlin 2010" [Statistical yearbook for Berlin 2010] (PDF) (in German). Amt für Statistik Berlin–Brandenburg. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
Berger, Melanie (6 June 2016). "Ramadan in Flüchtlingsheimen und Schulen in Berlin" [Ramadan in refugee homes and schools in Berlin]. Der Tagesspiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
Schupelius, Gunnar (28 May 2015). "Wird der Islam künftig die stärkste Religion in Berlin sein?". Berliner Zeitung. Archived from the original on 3 June 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
Ross, Mike (1 November 2014). "In Germany, a Jewish community now thrives". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
"Lutheran Diocese Berlin-Brandenburg". Selbständige Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche. Archived from the original on 28 March 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Berlin's mosques". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 11 November 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
Keller, Claudia (10 November 2013). "Berlins jüdische Gotteshäuser vor der Pogromnacht 1938: Untergang einer religiösen Vielfalt" [Berlin's jewish places of worship before the Pogromnacht 1938: Decline of a religious diversity]. Der Tagesspiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 11 November 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2018. "Von den weit mehr als 100 jüdischen Gotteshäusern sind gerade einmal zehn übrig geblieben. (in english: Of the far more than 100 synagogues, only ten are left.)"
"Verfassung von Berlin – Abschnitt IV: Die Regierung". www.berlin.de (in German). 1 November 2016. Archived from the original on 8 October 2020. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
"Berliner Haushalt Finanzsenator bleibt trotz sprudelnder Steuereinnahmen vorsichtig". Berliner Zeitung. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Vermögen" [Assets]. Berlin.de. 18 May 2017. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
"Beteiligungen des Landes Berlin" [Holdings of the State of Berlin]. Berlin.de (in German). 5 September 2019. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
"Real Estate Portal of the Berlin Business Location Center". Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
"Berlin state election, 2006" (PDF). Der Landeswahlleiter für Berlin (in German). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
"Kai Wegner zum Regierenden Bürgermeister von Berlin gewählt – neuer Senat im Amt". 27 April 2023. Archived from the original on 4 May 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
Marsh, Sarah; Rinke, Andreas; Marsh, Sarah (27 April 2023). "Berlin gets first conservative mayor in more than two decades". Reuters. Archived from the original on 18 August 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
"City Partnerships". Berlin.de. Governing Mayor of Berlin, Senate Chancellery, Directorate for Protocol and International Relations. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
"Bundespräsident Horst Köhler" (in German). Bundespraesident.de. Archived from the original on 23 March 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Gesetz über die Feststellung des Bundeshaushaltsplans für das Haushaltsjahr 2014". buzer.de. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
"Der Regierungsumzug ist überfällig" (in German). Berliner Zeitung. 26 October 2010. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2023.
"Germany – Embassies and Consulates". embassypages.com. Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
"Berlin – Europe's New Start-Up Capital". Credit Suisse. Archived from the original on 31 March 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
"Berlin hat so wenig Arbeitslose wie seit 24 Jahren nicht". Berliner Zeitung (in German). Archived from the original on 3 December 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
"In Berlin gibt es so viele Beschäftigte wie nie zuvor". Berliner Zeitung (in German). 28 January 2015. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
"Poor but sexy". The Economist. 21 September 2006. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Die kleine Berlin Statistik" (PDF). berlin.de. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
"Immer mehr Konzerne suchen den Spirit Berlins". Berliner Morgenpost. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
"The Science and Technology Park Berlin-Adlershof". Berlin Adlershof: Facts and Figures. Adlershof. Archived from the original on 17 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
"Global Cities Investment Monitor 2012" (PDF). KPMG. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
"Arbeitslosenquote in Berlin bis 2018". Statista. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
"Global 500 2023". Fortune. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
"Berlin's 'poor but sexy' appeal turning city into European Silicon Valley". The Guardian. 3 January 2014. Archived from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Frost, Simon (28 August 2015). "Berlin outranks London in start-up investment". euractiv.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
"Berlin's Economy in Figures" (PDF). IHK Berlin. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
"DB Schenker to concentrate control functions in Frankfurt am Main". Archived from the original on 22 September 2010. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
"A German Publisher Is Winning the Internet". Bloomberg.com. 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
"Press – Facts and figures – BVR – National Association of German Cooperative Banks". Archived from the original on 8 January 2024. Retrieved 8 January 2024.
"TOP 100 der deutschen Kreditwirtschaft" (PDF). die-bank.de (in German). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
"Bayer Worldwide: Activities and Directions to the German Sites". bayer.com. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
"Berlin Welcomes Record Numbers of Tourists and Convention Participants in 2014". visitBerlin. Archived from the original on 5 March 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
"Berlin No.1 city and Germany No.2 country in new ICCA rankings". C-MW.net. 12 January 2017. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
History Department at the University of San Diego. "Magnetic Recording History Pictures". Archived from the original on 9 May 2008.
"1935 AEG Magnetophon Tape Recorder". Mix. Penton Media Inc. 1 September 2006. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
Engel, Friedrich Karl; Peter Hammar (27 August 2006). "A Selected History of Magnetic Recording" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
A brief history of magnetic tape from the BASF Historian and the founding curator of the Ampex museum.
"Manfred von Ardenne". Archived from the original on 6 March 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2024.
"Following the Followers of Fashion". Handelsblatt Global. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2017.
"Ottomar Anschütz, Kinogeschichte, lebender Bilder, Kino, erste-Kinovorführung, Kinovorführung, Projektion, Kinoe, Bewegungsbilder".
"Berlin Cracks the Startup Code". Businessweek. 12 April 2012. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
"Culture and Creative Industries Index Berlin-Brandenburg 2015". Creative City Berlin. 7 June 2015. Archived from the original on 23 January 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
"Wall-to-wall culture". The Age. Australia. 10 November 2007. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 30 November 2007.
"Media Companies in Berlin and Potsdam". medienboard. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Quality of Living City Ranking | Mercer". mobilityexchange.mercer.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
Bishop, Jordan. "Munich Named The Most Livable City In The World". Forbes. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
Buckley, Julia (4 September 2019). "World's most livable city revealed". CNN Travel. Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
"Global Power City Index 2019". The Mori Memorial Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
"München rutscht ab: Städte-Studie sieht Berlin auf dem Spitzenplatz". Stuttgarter Zeitung. Archived from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
"Mobile capital". Business Location Center. 2011. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
"Straßenverkehr 2013" (in German). Amt für Statistik Berlin Brandenburg. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
"Top Developed World Cities with Low Reliance on Car-Based Mobility". Euromonitor International. 31 August 2015. Archived from the original on 23 February 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
"Bike City Berlin". Treehugger. Archived from the original on 21 September 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Platz da! – für die Radfahrer". Neues Deutschland. Archived from the original on 26 March 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
"Berlin Traffic in Figures" (PDF). Senate Department of Urban Development. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
"Mit dem Fahrrad – In Bussen und Bahnen" [By Bicycle – In Buses and Trains] (in German). Senate Department of Urban Development. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
"Taxis in Berlin". www.visitberlin.de. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
"Yes, There's Uber in Germany, but…". 31 July 2023.
"Bahnhof Berlin Hbf Daten und Fakten" (in German). Berlin Hauptbahnhof. Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
Latz, Christian (14 March 2021). "Wie der Westhafen Berlins Güterverkehr in die Zukunft bringt". morgenpost.de (in German). Archived from the original on 4 September 2021. Retrieved 4 September 2021.
"Berlin: Stations". Travelinho.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
"Die kleine Berlin-Statistik 2015" (PDF) (in German). Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
Winfried Wolf (1994). Berlin, Weltstadt ohne Auto? : Verkehrsgeschichte 1848–2015 (1. Aufl ed.). Köln: ISP. ISBN 3929008742. OCLC 33163088.
Schultheis, Emily (6 November 2018). "Whatever happened to Berlin's deserted 'ghost' airport?". BBC. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
"Berlin's new $7 billion airport has finally opened after 9 years of delays, corruption allegations, and construction woes— see inside". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
"Airport Berlin Brandenburg BER". berlin.de. Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
"BER: A brief history of how not to build an airport". 24 April 2019. Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
"2014 summer flight schedule". FBB. Archived from the original on 11 September 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
"European Green City Index Berlin Germany" (PDF). Siemens. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
Kühne, Anja; Warnecke, Tilmann (17 October 2007). "Berlin leuchtet" (in German). Der Tagesspiegel. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
"History of the Charité of Berlin". Charité. 2015. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
"Louis Pasteur vs Robert Koch: The History of Germ Theory". YouTube. 26 May 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin. "Facts & Figures". Archived from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
"Berlin to get free public Wi-Fi in early 2016". telecompaper. 26 November 2015. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
"Humboldt University". Archived from the original on 7 January 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
"Jahrgangsstufe Null". Der Tagesspiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 20 May 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Geschichte des Französischen Gymnasiums". Französisches Gymnasium Lycée Français Berlin (in German and French). Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
"Latein an Berliner Gymnasien" (in German). 29 March 2013. Archived from the original on 4 October 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
"Alt-Griechisch an Berliner Gymnasien" (in German). 31 March 2013. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2018.
"Metropolis of Sciences". Berlin Partner GmbH. Archived from the original on 24 April 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"HochschulenBerlin mit neuem Studentenrekord". Focus (in German). 25 November 2015. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
Free University of Berlin (29 November 2010). "Facts and Figures". Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
Humboldt University of Berlin. "Facts and Figures". Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
Technische Universität Berlin. "Facts and Figures". Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
Berlin University Alliance (12 February 2018). "Excellence Strategy of the German Government". Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
DFG. "Excellence Strategy". Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
Berlin University of the Arts. "Facts and Figures". Archived from the original on 28 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
"Ten institutions that dominated science in 2015". Nature Index. 20 April 2016. Archived from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
"European Institute of Innovation and Technology: Home". Europa (web portal). Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
"EIT ICT Labs – Turn Europe into a global leader in ICT Innovation". Technische Universität Berlin Center for Entrepreneurship. Archived from the original on 26 October 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
"Adlershof in Brief". Adlershof.de. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
"World Heritage Site Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 8 August 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Hub Culture's 2009 Zeitgeist Ranking". Hub Culture. Archived from the original on 31 March 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2009.
Boston, Nicholas (10 September 2006). "A New Williamsburg! Berlin's Expats Go Bezirk". The New York Observer. Archived from the original on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
"Berlin's music business booms". Expatica. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Unesco Creative Cities Network". projektzukunft.berlin.de (in German). Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
"Sprung in die Wolken". Zitty (in German). 2 July 2008. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2008.
"Egypt battling for more relics after Louvre success". Expatica. Archived from the original on 9 July 2019. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
Vogel, Carol (21 December 2000). "Dealer Will Enrich Art of the Berlin He Fled". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2018.
"Kupferstichkabinett". Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
Tillack-Graf, Anne-Kathleen (2004). Das Denkmal für Friedrich den Großen von Friedrich Gilly 1796 (in German). Munich: GRIN Verlag. ISBN 9783640966035.
"Exhibitions". Jewish Museum Berlin. Archived from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
"The World of Dinosaurs". Naturkundemuseum-berlin.de. 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"In Berlin, the Art of Sex". The Washington Post. 18 April 1999. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Erotikmuseum aus dem Verkehr gezogen". Der Tagesspiegel Online (in German). Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
"Berlin – Urban Art – visitBerlin.de EN". Archived from the original on 31 October 2015.
"One Wall Down, Thousands to Paint". The New York Times. 2 March 2008. Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
"Graffiti in the death strip: the Berlin wall's first street artist tells his story". The Guardian. 3 April 2014. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
"The 26 Best Cities in the World To See Street Art". The Huffington Post. 17 April 2014. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
Wasacz, Walter (11 October 2004). "Losing your mind in Berlin". Metro Times. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2006.
"Berlin, Berlin, the city of sin. The city that never sleeps, or better yet, where you never have to sleep". Decoded Magazine. 5 January 2017. Archived from the original on 6 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
"Art of Now – Berlin's Nightlife – BBC Sounds". BBC. Archived from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
Krauss, Kenneth (2004). The drama of fallen France: reading la comédie sans tickets. Albany, NY: State University of New York. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7914-5953-9.
Ross, Alex (26 January 2015). "Berlin Story – The New Yorker". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
"Berlin for Gays and Lesbians". 7 October 2006. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"European Film Academy". European Film Academy. Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Berlin Film Festival". Berlinale.de. Archived from the original on 17 February 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"English Summary". Karneval-berlin.de. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Berlin Festival Archived 14 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine website
Berlin Music Week Archived 10 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine website
Charlotte Higgins and Ben Aris in Berlin (29 April 2004). "Is Rattle's Berlin honeymoon over?". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Wakin, Daniel J. (25 September 2005). "Music: Berlin". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 August 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2024.
D. "Haus der Kulturen der Welt". Hkw.de. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Wilder, Charly (21 June 2018). "In the Capital of Electronic Music, Women Rule the Scene". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
"MICHELIN Guide, Germany, Berlin Restaurants". MICHELIN Guide. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
"Good Taste Award Winner 2015: Berlin, The New Vegetarian Capital". SAVEUR. 5 September 2015. Archived from the original on 17 February 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
"Berlin: Vegan capital of the world?". DW. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
"Berlin's booming food scene". DW. Archived from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
"Conscious Food Consumption at Berlin's Restlos Glücklich". Food Tank. 11 September 2016. Archived from the original on 4 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
Berlin Archived 3 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine German Foods
Paterson, Tony (15 August 2009). "Spicy sausage that is worthy of a shrine in Berlin". The Independent. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
"Chocolate Heaven at Fassbender & Rausch". Luxe Adventure Traveler. 2013. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
"History from 1918 to today". Rausch Chocolate House. Archived from the original on 26 July 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2023.
James Angelos (18 April 2012). "There's Nothing More German Than a Big, Fat Juicy Döner Kebab". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
"Hauptstadt-Zoo beliebtester Tierpark". Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg. Archived from the original on 7 October 2006. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
Moore, Tristana (23 March 2007). "Baby bear becomes media star". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 April 2007. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
"Grün Berlin" [Green Berlin] (in German). Die Grün Berlin GmbH. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
"Peter Joseph Lenné, Senate Department of Urban Development". Stadtentwicklung.berlin.de. 30 September 2011. Archived from the original on 21 April 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
Paul Sullivan (30 July 2010). "Volkspark Friedrichshain". Slow Travel Berlin. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
Stephan, Felix (10 December 2012). "Entfaltung auf dem Rollfeld". zeit.de. Berlin (Germany). Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
Lee, Denny (10 December 2006). "36 Hours in Berlin". Berlin (Germany): Travel.nytimes.com. Archived from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Melbourne retains ultimate sports city title". ABC News. 1 April 2008. Archived from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
"Italy conquer the world as Germany wins friends". Archived from the original on 21 August 2008.
"12. IAAF Leichtathletik WM berlin 2009". Berlin2009.org. Archived from the original on 20 July 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
"Euroleague Final Four returns to Berlin in 2016". Euroleague. 11 May 2015. Archived from the original on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 5 November 2016.
"Berlin's Failed Bid to Host the 2000 Summer Olympic Games: Urban Development and the Improvement of Sports Facilities". June 2009.
"Berlin, Germany selected to host the 2023 Special Olympics World Games". Special Olympics. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
"Berlin Marathon". Scc-events.com. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Mellowpark Campus". urbancatalyst-studio.de. Archived from the original on 4 September 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
"500,000 spectators to watch the game together". Blogs.bettor.com. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Mcintosh, J. S. (2010). Gymnastics. Mason Crest. ISBN 978-1422217344.
Strauss, Michael. "A History of Gymnastics: From Ancient Greece to Modern Times | Scholastic". www.scholastic.com. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
Drane, Robert (16 March 2016). "Friedrich Jahn invented gymnastics' apparatus". Inside Sport. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
"Ältester Sportverein der Welt wird 200 Jahre". Archived from the original on 26 January 2024. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
"Der Landessportbund Berlin – Mitglieder". LSB. Archived from the original on 4 October 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
"Berlin's swimming pools and bathing spots". New in the City. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
"Sports Metropolis". Be Berlin. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
"Hertha BSC". Herthabsc.de. 27 December 2011. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Union Berlin". Fc-union-berlin.de. Archived from the original on 7 February 2010. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"ALBA Berlin". Albaberlin.de. Archived from the original on 10 May 2000. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Berlin Thunder". europeanleague.football. Archived from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
"Eisbären Berlin". Eisbaeren.de. Archived from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
"Füchse Berlin". Fuechse-berlin.de. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
Sources
Ashworth, Philip Arthur; Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Berlin" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 785–791.
Chandler, Tertius (1987). Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Edwin Mellen Pr. ISBN 978-0-88946-207-6.
Daum, Andreas, ed. (2006). Berlin ‒ Washington, 1800‒2000: Capital Cities, Cultural Representation, and National Identities. Berghahn. ISBN 978-0-521-84117-7.
Daum, Andreas. Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-85824-3.
Gill, Anton (1993). A Dance Between Flames: Berlin Between the Wars. John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-4986-1.
Gross, Leonard (1999). The Last Jews in Berlin. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7867-0687-7.
Large, David Clay (2001). Berlin. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02632-6.
Maclean, Rory (2014). Berlin: Imagine a City. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84803-5.
Read, Anthony; David Fisher (1994). Berlin Rising: Biography of a City. W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-03606-0.
Reissner, Alexander (1984). Berlin 1675-1945: The Rise and Fall of a Metropolis, a Panoramic View. Oswald Wolff. ISBN 978-0-85496-140-5.
Ribbe, Wolfgang (2002). Geschichte Berlins. Bwv – Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8305-0166-4.
Roth, Joseph (2004). What I Saw: Reports from Berlin 1920–33. Granta Books. ISBN 978-1-86207-636-5.
Taylor, Frederick (2007). The Berlin Wall: 13 August 1961 – 9 November 1989. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-06-078614-4.
External links
berlin.de – official website
Geographic data related to Berlin at OpenStreetMap
Links to related articles
vte
Berlin topics
Administration
Politics Coat of arms Flag Subdivisions Elections Parliament Senate Governing Mayor Police
Culture
Culture Music Architecture Buildings Media Films set in Berlin Films shot in Berlin Sports Football
Society
History
timeline Geography Dialect Demographics Economy Education Transport Religion
Other topics
Metro Region Sights Castles Museums Places of worship Universities Parks and gardens
Category Germany portal
vte
Boroughs and quarters of Berlin
Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf (4)
Charlottenburg Charlottenburg-Nord Grunewald Halensee Schmargendorf Westend Wilmersdorf
Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg (2)
Friedrichshain Kreuzberg
Lichtenberg (11)
Alt-Hohenschönhausen Falkenberg Fennpfuhl Friedrichsfelde Karlshorst Lichtenberg Malchow Neu-Hohenschönhausen Rummelsburg Wartenberg
Marzahn-Hellersdorf (10)
Biesdorf Hellersdorf Kaulsdorf Mahlsdorf Marzahn
Mitte (1)
Gesundbrunnen Hansaviertel Mitte Moabit Tiergarten Wedding
Neukölln (8)
Britz Buckow Gropiusstadt Neukölln Rudow
Pankow (3)
Blankenburg Blankenfelde Buch Französisch Buchholz Heinersdorf Karow Niederschönhausen Pankow Prenzlauer Berg Rosenthal Stadtrandsiedlung Malchow Weißensee Wilhelmsruh
Reinickendorf (12)
Borsigwalde Frohnau Heiligensee Hermsdorf Konradshöhe Lübars Märkisches Viertel Reinickendorf Tegel Waidmannslust Wittenau
Spandau (5)
Falkenhagener Feld Gatow Hakenfelde Haselhorst Kladow Siemensstadt Spandau Staaken Wilhelmstadt
Steglitz-Zehlendorf (6)
Dahlem Lankwitz Lichterfelde Nikolassee Schlachtensee Steglitz Wannsee Zehlendorf
Tempelhof-Schöneberg (7)
Friedenau Lichtenrade Mariendorf Marienfelde Schöneberg Tempelhof
Treptow-Köpenick (9)
Adlershof Alt-Treptow Altglienicke Baumschulenweg Bohnsdorf Friedrichshagen Grünau Johannisthal Köpenick Müggelheim Niederschöneweide Oberschöneweide Plänterwald Rahnsdorf Schmöckwitz
Districts Localities Zones Greater Berlin Act Former boroughs
vte
Cities in Germany by population
1,000,000+
Berlin Cologne Hamburg Munich
500,000+
Bremen Dortmund Dresden Düsseldorf Essen Frankfurt am Main Hanover Leipzig Nuremberg Stuttgart
200,000+
Aachen Augsburg Bielefeld Bochum Bonn Braunschweig Chemnitz Duisburg Erfurt Freiburg im Breisgau Gelsenkirchen Halle (Saale) Karlsruhe Kassel Kiel Krefeld Lübeck Magdeburg Mainz Mannheim Münster Mönchengladbach Oberhausen Rostock Wiesbaden Wuppertal
100,000+
Bergisch Gladbach Bottrop Bremerhaven Darmstadt Erlangen Fürth Göttingen Gütersloh Hagen Hamm Hanau Heidelberg Heilbronn Herne Hildesheim Ingolstadt Jena Kaiserslautern Koblenz Leverkusen Ludwigshafen Moers Mülheim an der Ruhr Neuss Offenbach am Main Oldenburg Osnabrück Paderborn Pforzheim Potsdam Recklinghausen Regensburg Remscheid Reutlingen Saarbrücken Salzgitter Siegen Solingen Trier Ulm Wolfsburg Würzburg
Complete list Municipalities Metropolitan regions Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants
vte
States of the Federal Republic of Germany
States
Baden-Württemberg (since 1952) Bavaria (since 1949) Brandenburg (since 1990) Hesse (since 1949) Lower Saxony (since 1949) Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (since 1990) North Rhine-Westphalia (since 1949) Rhineland-Palatinate (since 1949) Saarland (since 1957) Saxony (since 1990) Saxony-Anhalt (since 1990) Schleswig-Holstein (since 1949) Thuringia (since 1990)
States of Germany
City-states
Berlin (since 1990) Bremen (since 1949) Hamburg (since 1949)
Former states
South Baden (1949–1952) Württemberg-Baden (1949–1952) Württemberg-Hohenzollern (1949–1952)
vte
Capitals of states of the Federal Republic of Germany
Capitals of area states
Dresden (Saxony) Düsseldorf (North Rhine-Westphalia) Erfurt (Thuringia) Hanover (Lower Saxony) Kiel (Schleswig-Holstein) Magdeburg (Saxony-Anhalt) Mainz (Rhineland-Palatinate) Munich (Bavaria) Potsdam (Brandenburg) Saarbrücken (Saarland) Schwerin (Mecklenburg-Vorpommern) Stuttgart (Baden-Württemberg) Wiesbaden (Hesse)
City-states1
Berlin City of Bremen (State of Bremen) Hamburg
Capitals of former states
Freiburg im Breisgau (South Baden, 1949–1952) Stuttgart (Württemberg-Baden, 1949–1952) Tübingen (Württemberg-Hohenzollern, 1949–1952)
1 Unlike the mono-city states Berlin and Hamburg, the State of Bremen consists of two cities, thus state and capital are not identical.
vte
Capitals of Europe
Capitals of dependent territories and states whose sovereignty is disputed shown in italics.
Sovereign states
Amsterdam, Netherlands1 Andorra la Vella, Andorra Ankara, Turkey2 Astana, Kazakhstan2 Athens, Greece Baku, Azerbaijan2 Belgrade, Serbia Berlin, Germany Bern, Switzerland Bratislava, Slovakia Brussels, Belgium3 Bucharest, Romania Budapest, Hungary Chișinău, Moldova Copenhagen, Denmark Dublin, Ireland Helsinki, Finland Kyiv, Ukraine Lisbon, Portugal Ljubljana, Slovenia London, United Kingdom Luxembourg, Luxembourg Madrid, Spain Minsk, Belarus Monaco5 Moscow, Russia Nicosia, Cyprus2 Oslo, Norway Paris, France Podgorica, Montenegro Prague, Czech Republic Reykjavík, Iceland Riga, Latvia Rome, Italy San Marino, San Marino Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Skopje, North Macedonia Sofia, Bulgaria Stockholm, Sweden Tallinn, Estonia Tbilisi, Georgia2 Tirana, Albania Vaduz, Liechtenstein Valletta, Malta Vatican City4 Vienna, Austria Vilnius, Lithuania Warsaw, Poland Yerevan, Armenia2 Zagreb, Croatia
States with
limited recognition
North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus2 Pristina, Kosovo Sokhumi, Abkhazia2 Tiraspol, Transnistria Tskhinvali, South Ossetia2
Dependencies
United Kingdom
Constituent countries
London, England Edinburgh, Scotland Cardiff, Wales Belfast, Northern Ireland
Crown Dependencies and
Overseas Territories
Douglas, Isle of Man Episkopi Cantonment, Akrotiri and Dhekelia Gibraltar, Gibraltar St Helier, Jersey Saint Peter Port, Guernsey
Other
Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Norway) Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Denmark)
Federal states
Austria
Bregenz, Vorarlberg Eisenstadt, Burgenland Graz, Styria Innsbruck, Tyrol Klagenfurt, Carinthia Linz, Upper Austria Salzburg, Salzburg Sankt Pölten, Lower Austria Vienna, Vienna
Belgium
Communities
Brussels, Flemish Community and French Community Eupen, German-speaking Community
Regions
Brussels, Brussels-Capital Region and Flanders Namur, Wallonia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Banja Luka (de facto), Republika Srpska Brčko, Brčko District Sarajevo, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Germany
Berlin, Berlin Bremen, Bremen Dresden, Saxony Düsseldorf, North Rhine-Westphalia Erfurt, Thuringia Hamburg, Hamburg Hanover, Lower Saxony Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein Magdeburg, Saxony-Anhalt Mainz, Rhineland-Palatinate Munich, Bavaria Potsdam, Brandenburg Saarbrücken, Saarland Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg Wiesbaden, Hesse
Russia
Republics
Cheboksary, Chuvashia Cherkessk, Karachay-Cherkessia Elista, Kalmykia Grozny, Chechnya Izhevsk, Udmurtia Kazan, Tatarstan Magas, Ingushetia Makhachkala, Dagestan Maykop, Adygea Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria Petrozavodsk, Karelia Saransk, Mordovia Simferopol, Crimea (disputed) Syktyvkar, Komi Ufa, Bashkortostan Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia–Alania Yoshkar-Ola, Mari El
Autonomous okrugs
Naryan-Mar, Nenets
Krais
Krasnodar, Krasnodar Krai Perm, Perm Krai Stavropol, Stavropol Krai
Oblasts
Arkhangelsk, Arkhangelsk Oblast Astrakhan, Astrakhan Oblast Belgorod, Belgorod Oblast Bryansk, Bryansk Oblast Ivanovo, Ivanovo Oblast Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast Kaluga, Kaluga Oblast Kirov, Kirov Oblast Kostroma, Kostroma Oblast Krasnogorsk and Moscow, Moscow Oblast (de facto) Kursk, Kursk Oblast Lipetsk, Lipetsk Oblast Murmansk, Murmansk Oblast Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast Orenburg, Orenburg Oblast Oryol, Oryol Oblast Penza, Penza Oblast Pskov, Pskov Oblast Rostov-on-Don, Rostov Oblast Ryazan, Ryazan Oblast Gatchina, Leningrad Oblast Samara, Samara Oblast Saratov, Saratov Oblast Smolensk, Smolensk Oblast Tambov, Tambov Oblast Tula, Tula Oblast Tver, Tver Oblast Ulyanovsk, Ulyanovsk Oblast Veliky Novgorod, Novgorod Oblast Vladimir, Vladimir Oblast Volgograd, Volgograd Oblast Vologda, Vologda Oblast Voronezh, Voronezh Oblast Yaroslavl, Yaroslavl Oblast
Federal cities
Moscow Saint Petersburg Sevastopol (disputed)
Switzerland
Aarau, Aargau Altdorf, Uri Appenzell, Appenzell Innerrhoden Basel, Basel-Stadt Bellinzona, Ticino Chur, Grisons Delémont, Jura Frauenfeld, Thurgau Fribourg, Canton of Fribourg Geneva, Canton of Geneva Herisau, Appenzell Ausserrhoden Lausanne, Vaud Liestal, Basel-Landschaft Lucerne, Canton of Lucerne Neuchâtel, Canton of Neuchâtel Sarnen, Obwalden Schaffhausen, Canton of Schaffhausen Schwyz, Canton of Schwyz Sion, Valais Solothurn, Canton of Solothurn Stans, Nidwalden St. Gallen, Canton of St. Gallen Glarus, Canton of Glarus Zug, Canton of Zug Zurich, Canton of Zürich
Autonomous
entities
Italy
Autonomous regions
Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily Trento, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Aosta, Aosta Valley Trieste, Friuli Venezia Giulia
Portugal
Autonomous regions
Ponta Delgada, Angra do Heroísmo, & Horta, Azores Funchal, Madeira
Spain
Barcelona, Catalonia Las Palmas & Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands Logroño, La Rioja Madrid, Community of Madrid Mérida, Extremadura Murcia, Region of Murcia Oviedo, Asturias Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands Pamplona, Navarre Santander, Cantabria Santiago de Compostela, Galicia Seville, Andalusia Toledo, Castilla–La Mancha (de facto) Valencia, Valencian Community Valladolid, Castile and León (de facto) Vitoria-Gasteiz, Basque Country (de facto) Zaragoza, Aragon
Other
Ajaccio, Corsica Collectivité (France) Batumi, Adjara (Georgia) Comrat, Gagauzia (Moldova) Karyes, Mount Athos (Greece) Mariehamn, Åland Islands (Finland) Nakhchivan, Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan) Novi Sad, Vojvodina (Serbia) Simferopol, Crimea (Ukraine)
1 Also the capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 2 Continental placement may vary depending on geographic convention being followed 3 Also the seat of the European Union, see Institutional seats of the European Union and Brussels and the European Union 4 A city-state
vte
European Capitals of Culture
1985
Athens
1986
Florence
1987
Amsterdam
1988
West Berlin
1989
Paris
1990
Glasgow
1991
Dublin
1992
Madrid
1993
Antwerp
1994
Lisbon
1995
Luxembourg City
1996
Copenhagen
1997
Thessaloniki
1998
Stockholm
1999
Weimar
2000
Reykjavík
Bergen
Helsinki
Brussels
Prague
Kraków
Santiago de Compostela
Avignon
Bologna
2001
Rotterdam
Porto
2002
Bruges
Salamanca
2003
Graz
Plovdiv
2004
Genoa
Lille
2005
Cork
2006
Patras
2007
Luxembourg City
Sibiu
2008
Liverpool
Stavanger
2009
Linz
Vilnius
2010
Essen
Istanbul
Pécs
2011
Turku
Tallinn
2012
Maribor
Guimarães
2013
Košice
Marseille
2014
Umeå
Riga
2015
Mons
Plzeň
2016
San Sebastián
Wrocław
2017
Aarhus
Paphos
2018
Valletta
Leeuwarden
2019
Plovdiv
Matera
2020-April 2021
Rijeka
Galway
2022
Kaunas
Esch-sur-Alzette
Novi Sad
2023
Veszprém
Timișoara
Elefsina
2024
Tartu
Bad Ischl
Bodø
2025
Nova Gorica / Gorizia
Chemnitz
2026
Oulu
Trenčín
2027
Liepāja
vte
Summer Olympic Games host cities
1896: Greece Athens
1900: France Paris
1904: United States St. Louis
1908: United Kingdom London
1912: Sweden Stockholm
1916: None[c1]
1920: Belgium Antwerp
1924: France Paris
1928: Netherlands Amsterdam
1932: United States Los Angeles
1936: Germany Berlin
1940: None[c2]
1944: None[c2]
1948: United Kingdom London
1952: Finland Helsinki
1956: Australia Melbourne
1960: Italy Rome
1964: Japan Tokyo
1968: Mexico Mexico City
1972: West Germany Munich
1976: Canada Montreal
1980: Soviet Union Moscow
1984: United States Los Angeles
1988: South Korea Seoul
1992: Spain Barcelona
1996: United States Atlanta
2000: Australia Sydney
2004: Greece Athens
2008: China Beijing
2012: United Kingdom London
2016: Brazil Rio de Janeiro
2020: Japan Tokyo[c3]
2024: France Paris
2028: United States Los Angeles
2032: Australia Brisbane
[c1] Cancelled due to World War I; [c2] Cancelled due to World War II; [c3] Postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic
vte
Host cities of the World Athletics Championships
1983: Helsinki 1987: Rome 1991: Tokyo 1993: Stuttgart 1995: Gothenburg 1997: Athens 1999: Seville 2001: Edmonton 2003: Saint-Denis 2005: Helsinki 2007: Osaka 2009: Berlin 2011: Daegu 2013: Moscow 2015: Beijing 2017: London 2019: Doha 2022: Eugene 2023: Budapest 2025: Tokyo 2027: Beijing
vte
Members of the Hanseatic League by quarter, and trading posts of the Hanseatic League
Chief cities shown in smallcaps.
Free Imperial Cities of the Holy Roman Empire shown in italics.
Wendish
Lübeck
Anklam Demmin Greifswald Hamburg Kolberg (Kołobrzeg) Lüneburg Rostock Rügenwalde (Darłowo) Stettin (Szczecin) Stolp (Słupsk) Stargard Stockholm Stralsund Visby Wismar
Principal trading routes of the Hanseatic League
Lubeck — a main city of the Hanseatic League
Saxon
Brunswick
Magdeburg
Berlin Bremen Erfurt Frankfurt an der Oder Goslar Mühlhausen Nordhausen
Baltic
Danzig
Westphalian
Cologne 1
Dortmund 1
Deventer Groningen Kampen Münster Osnabrück Soest Zutphen Zwolle
Kontore
Bryggen (Bergen) Kontor of Bruges
Bruges Antwerp2 Steelyard (London) Peterhof (Novgorod)
Vitten
Falsterbo Malmö
Factories
Bishop's Lynn Bristol Boston Ipswich Kaunas Leith Herford Hull Newcastle Polotsk Pskov Yarmouth York
1 Cologne and Dortmund were both chief city of the Westphalian Quarter at different times.
2 The kontor was moved to Antwerp once Bruges became inaccessible due to the silting of the Zwin channel.
vte
Laureates of the Prince or Princess of Asturias Award for Concord
Prince of Asturias Award for Concord
1986: Vicariate of Solidarity 1987: Villa El Salvador 1988: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and World Wide Fund for Nature 1989: Stephen Hawking 1990: Sephardic Communities 1991: Médecins Sans Frontières and Medicus Mundi 1992: American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) 1993: Association for Peace in the Basque Country 1994: National Movement of Street Children, Messengers of Peace and Save the Children 1995: H.M. Hussein I, king of Jordan 1996: Adolfo Suárez 1997: Mstislav Rostropovich and Yehudi Menuhin 1998: Nicolás Castellanos, Vicente Ferrer, Joaquín Sanz Gadea and Muhammad Yunus 1999: Caritas Spain 2000: Royal Spanish Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language 2001: World Network of Biosphere Reserves 2002: Daniel Barenboim and Edward Said 2003: J. K. Rowling 2004: The Way of St. James 2005: Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul 2006: UNICEF 2007: Yad Vashem 2008: Íngrid Betancourt 2009: The City of Berlin 2010: Manos Unidas 2011: Fukushima 50 2012: Spanish Federation of Food Banks 2013: Spanish Organization for the Blind (ONCE) 2014: Caddy Adzuba
Princess of Asturias Award for Concord
2015: Hospitaller Order of St John of God 2016: SOS Children's Villages 2017: European Union 2018: Sylvia A. Earle 2019: The City of Gdańsk 2020: Spanish health workers on the front line against COVID-19 2021: José Andrés and the World Central Kitchen 2022: Shigeru Ban 2023: Mary's Meals 2024: Magnum Photos
Portals:
flag East Germany
Cities
map Europe
flag European Union
flag Germany
icon Geography
Berlin at Wikipedia's sister projects:
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Travel guides from Wikivoyage
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata
International
ISNIVIAFFASTWorldCat
National
GermanyUnited StatesFranceBnF dataJapanCzech Republic
2SpainNorwayKoreaSwedenIsrael
Geographic
MusicBrainz area
Other
IdRefHistorical Dictionary of SwitzerlandNARA
2Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
Categories:
BerlinGerman state capitalsCapitals in EuropeCity-statesMembers of the Hanseatic LeaguePopulated places established in the 13th centuryTurkish communities outside Turkey1230s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire1237 establishments in EuropeStates of GermanyNUTS 2 statistical regions of GermanyNUTS 3 statistical regions of the European UnionHolocaust locations in Germany
Contents hide
(Top)
Etymology
History
Geography
Government and politics
Economy
Demographics
Culture
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Russia
Article
Talk
Read
View source
View history
Tools
Appearance hide
Text
Small
Standard
Large
Width
Standard
Wide
Color (beta)
Automatic
Light
Dark
Coordinates: 66°N 94°E
Extended-protected article
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Russia (disambiguation).
Russian Federation
Российская Федерация (Russian)
Flag of Russia
Flag
Coat of arms of Russia
Coat of arms
Anthem:
Государственный гимн Российской Федерации
Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii
"State Anthem of the Russian Federation"
Duration: 1 minute and 22 seconds.1:22
Recognised territory of Russia
Claimed but internationally unrecognised[a]
Show globe
Show region with labels
Show map of Europe
Show all
Capital
and largest city
Moscow
55°45′21″N 37°37′02″E
Official and national language Russian[3]
Recognised regional languages 35 regional official languages[4]
Ethnic groups (2021; including Crimea)[5]
71.7% Russian
3.2% Tatar
1.1% Bashkir
1.1% Chechen
11.3% other
11.6% not reported
Demonym(s) Russian
Government Federal semi-presidential republic[6] under an authoritarian[7][8] dictatorship[9][10]
• President
Vladimir Putin
• Prime Minister
Mikhail Mishustin
Legislature Federal Assembly
• Upper house
Federation Council
• Lower house
State Duma
Formation
• Kievan Rus'
882
• Vladimir-Suzdal
1157
• Principality of Moscow
1282
• Tsardom of Russia
16 January 1547
• Russian Empire
2 November 1721
• Monarchy abolished
15 March 1917
• Soviet Union
30 December 1922
• Declaration of State
Sovereignty
12 June 1990
• Russian Federation
12 December 1991
• Current constitution
12 December 1993
• Union State formed
8 December 1999
Area
• Total
17,098,246 km2 (6,601,670 sq mi)[12] (within internationally recognised borders)
• Water (%)
13[11] (including swamps)
Population
• 2025 estimate
Neutral decrease 146,028,325[13]
(including Crimea)[14]
Neutral decrease 143,569,049
(excluding Crimea)
(9th)
• Density
8.4/km2 (21.8/sq mi) (187th)
GDP (PPP) 2025 estimate
• Total
Increase $7.192 trillion[15] (4th)
• Per capita
Increase $49,383[15] (43rd)
GDP (nominal) 2025 estimate
• Total
Decrease $2.076 trillion[15] (11th)
• Per capita
Decrease $14,258[15] (65th)
Gini (2020) Positive decrease 36.0[16]
medium inequality
HDI (2023) Increase 0.832[17]
very high (64th)
Currency Ruble (₽) (RUB)
Time zone UTC+2 to +12
Calling code +7
ISO 3166 code RU
Internet TLD
.ru
.рф
.su
Russia,[b] or the Russian Federation,[c] is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, and extends across eleven time zones, sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[d] Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous country in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia, while Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre.
Human settlement on the territory of modern Russia dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state, Kievan Rus', arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated; the Grand Duchy of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, leading to the proclamation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers, developing into the Russian Empire, which remains the third-largest empire in history. However, with the Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia's monarchic rule was abolished and eventually replaced by the Russian SFSR—the world's first constitutionally socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, the Russian SFSR established the Soviet Union with three other Soviet republics, within which it was the largest and principal constituent. The Soviet Union underwent rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, amidst the deaths of millions under Joseph Stalin's rule, and later played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. With the onset of the Cold War, it competed with the United States for ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space.
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. A new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and become an authoritarian dictatorship. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014. The latter has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory, including Crimea in 2014 and four other regions in 2022, during an ongoing invasion.
Russia is generally considered a great power and is a regional power, possessing the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the third-highest military expenditure in the world. It has a high-income economy, which is the eleventh-largest in the world by nominal GDP and fourth-largest by PPP, relying on its vast mineral and energy resources, which rank as the second-largest in the world for oil and natural gas production. However, Russia ranks very low in international measurements of democracy, human rights and freedom of the press, and also has high levels of perceived corruption. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council; a member state of the G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, and WTO; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as CIS, CSTO, and EAEU. Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Etymology
Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English name Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from Medieval Latin: Russia, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from Russi, 'the Russians' and the suffix -ia.[19][20]
There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective русский, russkiy refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective российский, rossiiskiy denotes Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun россиянин, rossiianyn, in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.[21][22]
The oldest endonyms used were Rus' (Русь) and the "Russian land" (Русская земля, Russkaya zemlya).[23] According to the Primary Chronicle, the word Rus' is derived from the Rus' people, who were a Swedish tribe, and from where the three original members of the Rurikid dynasty came from.[24] The Finnish word for Swedes, ruotsi, has the same origin.[25] In modern historiography, the early medieval East Slavic state is usually referred to as Kievan Rus', named after its capital city.[26] Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was Ruthenia.[27]
In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the Byzantine Greek name Ρωσία (Rosía).[28] The name Росия (Rosiya) was first attested in 1387.[29] The name Rossiya appeared in Russian sources in the 15th century and began to replace the vernacular Rus' during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state.[30] However, until the end of the 17th century, the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus', the "Russian land" (Russkaya zemlya), or the "Muscovite state" (Moskovskoye gosudarstvo), among other variations.[31][21]
In 1721, Peter the Great proclaimed the Russian Empire (Rossiyskaya imperiya).[31] The name Rossiya was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state.[32] Rossiya is distinguished from the ethnonym russkiy, as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians.[32] After the Russian Revolution and the proclamation of the Russian SFSR in 1918, the "Russian" in the title of the state was Rossiyskaya, rather than Russkaya, as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions.[33] In modern Russian, the name Rus' is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.[26]
History
Main article: History of Russia
Early history
Further information: Ancient Greek colonies, Early Slavs, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia
See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland
The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of Homo erectus migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[34] Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus.[35] Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[36] Fossils of Denny, an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[37] Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.[38]
The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia.[39] The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo,[40] and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in western Russia.[41] Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya.[42] Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.[43]
Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[44] including the Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia
The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[45] Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.[46][47] Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic.[48] Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo,[48] Sintashta,[49] Arkaim,[50] and Pazyryk,[51] which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare.[49] The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.[52]
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[53] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[54] The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[55] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[56]
The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe c. 1500 years ago.[57] The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov.[58] Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[59][60]
Kievan Rus'
Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; Kievan Rus'; and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine
Kievan Rus' after the Council of Liubech in 1097
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of Varangians, the Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.[59][61] According to the Primary Chronicle, a Varangian from the Rus' people, named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars.[59][61] Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[62] and launched several military expeditions to Bulgaria, Byzantium and Persia.[63][64]
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the Golden Age of Kiev, which saw the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, and the creation of the first East Slavic written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda.[59] The age of feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[59] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[65] Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[65] leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[59]
Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240,[66] as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.[67]
Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.[59] The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[68] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.[59] Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[59]
Grand Principality of Moscow
Main article: Grand Principality of Moscow
Sergius of Radonezh blessing Dmitry Donskoy in Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by Ernst Lissner
The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal.[59]: 11–20 While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[69] gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".[59][70] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[71] Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[72]
Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[59] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.[59]
Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the Golden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands;[59] he later adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia.[73] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[59] Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.[74]
Tsardom of Russia
Main article: Tsardom of Russia
See also: Moscow, third Rome
Ivan IV was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then Tsar of Russia until his death in 1584.
In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand prince Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned as the first tsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[59] During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga,[75] and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains.[76] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[77] In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.[78]
Feodor Godunov's map of Russia, as published by Hessel Gerritsz in 1614
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[79] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[80] In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky.[81] The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[82]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks.[83] In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis, whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, leaving the eastern part, (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian rule.[84] In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[83] In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.[85]
Imperial Russia
Main article: Russian Empire
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[59] He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.[86] However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[87]
Expansion and territorial evolution of Russia from the coronation of Ivan IV to the death of Peter I
Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe.[88] In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea.[89] As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus.[90] Catherine's successor, her son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues.[91] Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[92] and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.[93] In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska.[94] In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made.[95] In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.[96]
Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts
Napoleon's retreat from Moscow by Albrecht Adam (1851)
During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.[97] Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[98]
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.[99] At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[100]
Great liberal reforms and capitalism
The Battle of Shipka Pass for the control of the vital Shipka Pass during the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War
Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.[101] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[102] During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.[103]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[104] The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[105]
Constitutional monarchy and World War
Under last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War.[106] The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.[107]
Revolution and civil war
Main articles: Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, and Dissolution of the Russian Empire
Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.
In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia,[108] and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.[109] In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.[110] However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.[59] In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War.[111] The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government,[112] and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.[59]
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called soviets. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state.[59] The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army.[113] In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I, Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[114]
Vladimir Lenin speaks in Moscow, 1920, with Leon Trotsky leaning against the podium
The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[115] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.[116] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[117] Millions became White émigrés,[118] and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[119]
Soviet Union
Main article: History of the Soviet Union
Location of the Russian SFSR (red) within the Soviet Union in 1936
Command economy and Soviet society
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.[120] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15 republics, the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[121]
Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.[122] Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,[123] and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line.[124] The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.[125]
Stalinism and modernisation
Congratulations sent by Joseph Stalin on the opening of the Stalingrad Tractor Plant
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule,[126] and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[127] The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,[128] led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which killed 5.7[129] to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[130] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[131]
World War II and United Nations
Main article: Soviet Union in World War II
Two teenage girls assemble PPD-40 submachine guns during the Siege of Leningrad in 1942
The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the German army.
The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland,[132] in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany.[133] The Soviet Union later invaded Finland,[134] and occupied and annexed the Baltic states,[135] as well as parts of Romania.[136]: 91–95 On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union,[137] opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.[138]: 7
Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[139]: 272 the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost.[140]: 175–186 Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.[141] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[142] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[143] Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[144] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945.[145] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[146]
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.[147] The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.[148]: 27 During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million,[149] accounting for about half of all World War II casualties.[150]: 295 The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.[151] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[152]
Superpower and Cold War
The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin
After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria.[153] Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.[154] After becoming the world's second nuclear power,[155] the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,[156] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.[157]
Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development
After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps.[158] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw.[159] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.[160]
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age.[161] Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.[162]
Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation
Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy.[163] In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.[164] In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[165]
Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty
Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan in Red Square during the Moscow Summit, 31 May 1988
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[166] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[167] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[168]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[169] On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation.[170] In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR.[171] In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[172] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.[173]
Independent Russian Federation
Main article: History of Russia (1991–present)
Further information: Presidency of Boris Yeltsin, Russia under Vladimir Putin, and Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev
Transition to a market economy and political crises
Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his first inauguration, with Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000.
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy".[174] The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs.[175] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.[176] The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed,[177][178] and millions plunged into poverty,[179] while extreme corruption,[180] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[181]
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[182]
Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation
In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[183] The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.[184] From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[185] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[e][186]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.[187] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[188] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[189]
Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding
Further information: Putinism
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[190] handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.[191] Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,[192] and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.[193]
Putin won a second presidential term in 2004.[194] High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.[195] Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.[196] In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits;[197] this period has been described as a "tandemocracy".[198]
Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine as of 30 September 2022 at the time their annexation was declared
Following a diplomatic crisis with neighbouring Georgia, the Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it occupies in Georgia.[199] It was the first European war of the 21st century.[200] The 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years.[201] Putin then went on to win the 2012 presidential election, which fueled the "Snow Revolution" protests.[202]
Invasion of Ukraine
Main article: Russian invasion of Ukraine
In early 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in neighbouring Ukraine, Russia annexed Crimea after a disputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged under Russian occupation.[203][204] The annexation generated an insurgency in the Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of an undeclared war against Ukraine.[205] Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and pro-Russian protests in the region,[206] although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.[207] Amidst nationwide protests against corruption,[208] Putin was re-elected for his second consecutive term in the 2018 presidential election.[209]
In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022.[210] The invasion marked the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II,[211] and was met with international condemnation,[212] as well as expanded sanctions against Russia.[213]
Putin with Shoigu, Gerasimov, Belousov, Yevkurov and commanders of Russia's military districts on 15 May 2024
As a result, Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March,[214] and was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council in April.[215] In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives,[216] Putin announced a "partial mobilisation", Russia's first mobilisation since Operation Barbarossa.[217] In the end of September, Putin proclaimed the annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions, the largest annexation in Europe since World War II.[218] Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognised and widely denounced as illegal.[218] As a result of the invasion, hundreds of thousands of people are estimated to have been killed or injured,[219][220] while Russia has been accused of numerous war crimes.[221][222][223] The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia's demographic crisis.[224]
In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defence, capturing Rostov-on-Don, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.[225][226] The leader of the rebellion, Yevgeny Prigozhin, was later killed in a plane crash.[227] Putin won his third consecutive term in the 2024 presidential election, by winning 88% of the vote, the highest percentage in a presidential election in post-Soviet Russia.[228]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Russia
Topographic map of Russia
Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[229][230] It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[f][232] Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.[233] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[g] and has the same surface area as Pluto.[234]
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and Europe);[6] the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia).[235][229] The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.[236] The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.[237]
Frozen Lake Baikal near Olkhon Island, the third-largest lake island in the world
Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans,[230] has links with a great number of seas.[h][229] Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are disputed with Japan), and Sakhalin.[238][239] The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart;[240] and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.[2]
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,[230] has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water.[229] Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[241] Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.[230] Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources.[242] The Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the longest river in Europe and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent.[243] The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.[244]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Russia
The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[229] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),[238] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.[229]
Köppen climate classification of Russia
The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[229] In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[229] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.[245]
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief.[229] The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[246] Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires,[247] and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.[248]
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Russia
See also: List of ecoregions in Russia
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.[249] About half of Russia's territory is forested,[6] and it has the world's largest area of forest,[250] which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.[250][251]
Yugyd Va National Park in the Komi Republic is the largest national park in Europe.[236]
Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).[249][252] Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.[249]
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.[249] They include 45 biosphere reserves,[253] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.[254] Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest, mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[255] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.[256]
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Russia
Vladimir Putin
President
Mikhail Mishustin
Prime Minister
A chart of the political system in Russia
Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state,[257] and the prime minister is the head of government.[6][258] It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy,[258] with the federal government composed of three branches:[259]
Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council,[259] adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the president.[260]
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.[257] The president may issue decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.[261]
Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,[259] interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.[262]
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.[263][i] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent" and the "party of power".[265][266]
Post-Soviet Russia was a flawed democracy during the presidency of Boris Yeltsin.[267]: 223 However, following the presidencies of Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev, it has experienced significant democratic backsliding.[267]: 223 [268][269] The political system evolved from electoral authoritarianism into a consolidated authoritarian regime.[267]: 323 [270] Some political scientists have characterized Putin as the head of a dictatorship,[8][9][271] or a personalist regime.[272][273][270] Putin's second tenure as president has led to further autocratization,[267]: 512 [274]: 80–81 which has been the most significant since the Soviet era,[275][276] with some authors suggesting a regeneration of totalitarian elements.[277][278] Putin's ruling policies are generally referred to as Putinism.[279]
Political divisions
Main article: Political divisions of Russia
Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[280]
The federal subjects[j] have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly.[281] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.[282] The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[283] Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.[284]
Federal subjects Governance
46 oblasts
The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[285]
22 republics
Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[286]
9 krais
For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[287]
4 autonomous okrugs
Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[288]
3 federal cities
Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).[289]
1 autonomous oblast
The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[290]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Russia
Putin with G20 counterparts in Osaka, 2019
Russia has the world's sixth-largest diplomatic network as of 2024. It maintains diplomatic relations with 187 United Nations member states, two partially-recognised states,[291] and two United Nations observer states, along with 143 embassies.[292] Russia is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is generally described as a great power,[293][294][295][296] though it has been questioned whether it can retain this status.[297][298] Russia is also a former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.[152] and the legal successor to Soviet foreign policies.[299] It is a member of the G20, the OSCE, and the APEC—and the leading member of organisations such as the CIS,[300] the EAEU,[301] the CSTO,[302] the SCO,[303] and BRICS.[304] Russia was also a member of the G8 (now the G7) and part of the Council of Europe before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.[305][306]
Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.[307] Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[308] From the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically due to shared political interests.[309] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[310] Russia wields great political influence across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia, and the two regions have been described as being part of Russia's "backyard"[311][312] or "near abroad".[299][313]
Russia
Countries on Russia's "Unfriendly countries list". The list includes countries that have imposed sanctions against Russia for its invasion of Ukraine.
Russia shares a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship with Turkey.[314] It maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[315] Russia has also significantly developed its relations with North Korea following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation.[316] At the same time, its relations with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—specifically the United States and the collective countries of the European Union and NATO—have collapsed.[317][318]
In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in the post-Soviet states of Georgia and Ukraine, as well as in Syria during its prolonged civil war in a bid to increase its influence in the Middle East.[319] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,[320] the Asia–Pacific,[321] Africa[322] and Latin America.[323] Two-thirds of the world's population, specifically the developing countries of the Global South, are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically.[324][325] Russia has also continued using subversive tactics to increase perceptions of its geopolitical power in its rival countries,[326][293] including cyberwarfare, disinformation campaigns,[327] sabotage attacks,[328] assassination attempts,[329] airspace violations,[330] electoral interferences,[331] and nuclear saber-rattling.[332]
Military
Main article: Russian Armed Forces
Sukhoi Su-57, a fifth-generation fighter of the Russian Air Force[333]
The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.[334][6] As of 2025, the military have 1.1 million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 1.5 million reserve personnel.[335] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[6]
Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.[336] Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines,[337] and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers.[338] As of 2023, Russia maintains the world's third-highest military expenditure, spending $109 billion, corresponding to about 5.9% of its GDP.[339] It is also the third-largest arms exporter,[339] and has a large and indigenous defence industry, which produces the majority of its military equipment.[340][341][342]
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Russia
Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[343][344]
Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey.[345] Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 150th out of 167 countries in 2024.[346] In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 162nd out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2024.[347] The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and human rights activists for unfair elections,[348] crackdowns on opposition political parties and protests,[349][350] persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists,[351][352][353] and censorship of mass media and internet.[354]
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.[355]
Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia.[356][357] To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[358] arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.[359][360] In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[361][362] Chechens and Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[363] During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.[364][365] Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.[366]
Russia has introduced several restrictions on LGBTQ rights. In 2013, an anti-LGBTQ law banning "gay propaganda" was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin.[367] In 2020, the Russian parliament legalized a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage,[368] and in 2021 the Ministry of Justice designated the LGBTQ rights group Russian LGBT Network as a "foreign agent".[369] In 2022, further amendments were made to the 2013 anti-LGBTQ law.[370] In 2023, the Russian parliament passed a bill banning gender reassignment surgery for transgender people and the Supreme Court of Russia banned the international LGBTQ movement as "extremist", outlawing it in the country.[371][372] In 2024, the Supreme Court issued the first convictions from the latter ruling.[373]
Law, corruption and crime
Main articles: Law of Russia, Law enforcement in Russia, Crime in Russia, and Corruption in Russia
Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form of crony capitalism.[374][375] Its political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy,[376] an oligarchy,[377] and a plutocracy.[374] As of 2024, it is the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's annual Corruption Perceptions Index, ranking 154th out of the 180 countries listed.[378]
Opposition leader Alexei Navalny leading protestors in Moscow in the nationwide anti-corruption protests of 2017–2018
Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union,[379] and is seen as a significant issue in society.[380][381] It affects various sectors, including the economy,[380] the government,[382] law enforcement,[383] healthcare,[384][385] education,[386] and the military.[387] Russia's shadow economy was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018.[388] Penal military units have been deployed as storm troops during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as the Storm-Z and Storm-V units.[389][390] According to estimates by the BBC, around 48,000 prisoners were recruited to fight for the Wagner Group.[391]
The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as the Russian Civil Code and the Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.[392][393] Russia has the largest incarcerated population in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world.[394] Its incarceration rate is among the highest in Europe,[395] although the number has fallen steadily, by 59% since 2000.[394] As of 2021, Russia's intentional homicide rate stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people.[396] In 2023, Russia had the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, was described as a key hub for human trafficking, and was ranked first in Europe and 19th globally in the Global Organized Crime Index.[397]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Russia
Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in Russia
Russia has a high-income,[398] industrialized,[399] mixed market-oriented economy following a turbulent transition from the Soviet planned model during the 1990s.[400][401][402][403] It has the eleventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest economy by GDP (PPP). As of 2023, the service sector accounts for roughly 57% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (30%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, at 3% of total GDP.[6] Russia's foreign exchange reserves are the fourth-largest in the world.[404] It has a labour force of about 73 million, which is the eighth-largest in the world.[405] As of 2023, Russia's largest trading partner by total import and export volume is China.[406]
The Moscow International Business Centre in Moscow. The city has one of the world's largest urban economies.[407]
Russia's human development is ranked as "very high" in the annual Human Development Index.[408] Roughly 70% of Russia's total GDP is driven by domestic consumption,[409] and the country has the world's twelfth-largest consumer market.[410] Its social security system comprised roughly 16% of the total GDP in 2015.[411] Russia has the fifth-highest number of billionaires in the world.[412] However, its income inequality remains comparatively high compared to other developed countries.[413] The top 10% of the society received about 46% of the national income as of 2019, while the bottom half received only 20%, comparable to the share of the top 1%.[414] The variance of natural resources among its federal subjects has also led to regional economic disparities.[415][416] High levels of corruption,[417] a shrinking labor force,[418] and an aging and declining population also remain major barriers to future economic growth.[419][420]
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the country has faced extensive sanctions and other negative financial actions from the Western world and its allies which have the aim of isolating the Russian economy from the Western financial system.[421] However, Russia has completed its transition into a war economy,[422] and has shown resilience to such measures broadly, maintaining economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high military expenditure,[423] rising household consumption and wages,[424] low unemployment,[425] and increased government spending.[426] Yet, inflation has remained comparatively high,[427] with experts predicting the sanctions will have a long-term negative effect on the Russian economy.[428]
Transport and energy
Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia
Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-longest, exceeding 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[429] As of 2019, Russia has the world's fifth-largest road network, with over 1.5 million km of roads.[430] However, its road density is among the world's lowest, in part to its vast land area.[431] Russia's inland waterways are the longest in the world, totaling 102,000 km (63,380 mi).[432] It has over 900 airports,[433] ranking seventh in the world, of which the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. The largest ports include the Port of Novorossiysk, the Great Port of Saint Petersburg and the Port of Vladivostok.[434]
The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to Vladivostok.[435]
Sheremetyevo International Airport is the busiest airport in Russia
Russia has one of the world's largest amounts of energy resources throughout its vast landmass, particularly natural gas and oil, which play a crucial role in its energy self-sufficiency and exports.[400] It has been widely described as an energy superpower.[436] Russia has the world's largest proven gas reserves,[437] the second-largest coal reserves,[438] the eighth-largest proven oil reserves,[439] and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe.[440] As of 2023, it is also the second-largest producer[441] and the third-largest exporter of natural gas,[442] as well as the second-largest producer and exporter of crude oil.[443] Russia's large oil and gas sector accounted for 30% of its federal budget revenues in 2024, down from 50% in the mid-2010s, suggesting economic diversification.[444]
Russia is the world's third-largest electricity producer as of 2023.[445] Fossil fuels account for over 64% of energy production and 87% of energy consumption.[446] Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of the energy production and 42% of electricity consumption.[446] Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's first nuclear power plant in 1954, and remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in fast neutron reactors.[447] Russia is the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer, which accounts for roughly one-fourth of energy generation (18%).[448] Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.[447] Russia is the sole country that builds and operates nuclear-powered icebreakers,[449] which ease navigation along the Northern Sea Route,[449]: 192 and aid in utilizing its Arctic policy in its continental shelf.[450]
Russia joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015, and ratified the agreement in 2019.[451] Its greenhouse gas emissions are the fourth-largest in the world as of 2023.[452] Coal accounts for over 16% of energy generation.[446] Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022,[453] with hydroelectric power contributing almost a fifth to the total energy generation (17%).[446] Though it is the eighth-largest renewable energy producer as of 2023, the use and development of other renewable energy resources remain negligible,[446] as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for a renewable energy transition.[448]
Agriculture and fishery
Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia
Wheat in Tomsk Oblast, Siberia
Agriculture, forestry and fishing contributes about 3.3% of the country's total GDP as of 2023.[454] It has the world's fourth-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[6] with an additional 7.4% being arable.[455] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.[456] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[457] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.[457] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat and the largest producer of barley and buckwheat.[406][458] It is also among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, as well as the leading producer of fertiliser.[458][406]
Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[459] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry, capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[460] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga, and produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[461]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Russia
See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventors
Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world's tenth-highest budget.[462] It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.[463] Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.[464] Russia ranked 60th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 45th in 2021.[465][466]
Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor, Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential.[467] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.[468] Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[469]
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist
Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[470] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.[471] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[472] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[473] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.[474] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.[475] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[476]
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants.[477] Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism.[478] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.[479] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.[480] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[481] George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[482]
Space exploration
Mir, Russian space station that operated in LEO
Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space programme in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.[483]: 6–7, 333
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.[484] In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[485]
In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.[486] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[487] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.[488] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.[489] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[490]: 34–60 During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[491] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[492]
As of 2023, Russia has 181 active satellites in space, which is the third-highest in the world.[493] Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle programme in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS.[494] Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[495]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Russia
According to the World Tourism Organisation, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.[496] According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.[497] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11.6 billion.[496] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.[498] In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6.3 million foreign visitors.[499]
Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains,[500] and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.[501] Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[502]
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[503] Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.[504] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery, and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[505]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Russia, Russians, List of cities and towns in Russia, and List of cities and towns in Russia by population
Population density of Russian municipalities according to the 2021 census
Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census
Russia had an estimated population of 146.0 million in 2025 (143.6 million excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),[14] down from 147.2 million in the 2021 census.[506] It is the most populous country in Europe and ninth-most populous country in the world. With a population density of 8.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (22 inhabitants/sq mi),[507] Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries,[6] with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its western part.[508] The country is highly urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in urban areas. As of 2024, the total fertility rate across Russia is estimated to be 1.41 children born per woman,[509] which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among the lowest in the world.[510] Subsequently, it has one of the oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 41.9 years.[6]
Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis.[511] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration.[512] However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.[513] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened,[514] owing to high military fatalities[515] and renewed emigration.[516] Recent studies have shown that between 15-45% of Russian emigrants have returned to Russia, though these numbers are not conclusive.[517]
Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[518] There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities.[519] Over four-fifths of Russia's population was of European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs,[518][520] with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples.[521][522] Russia has the third-largest immigrant population in the world, with over 12 million immigrants residing in the country as of 2019.[523] The vast majority of the Immigrants hail from post-Soviet states, with about half of them being from Ukraine and Kazakhstan as of 2020.[524]
vte
Largest cities or towns in Russia
2025 estimate[525]
Rank Name Federal subject Pop. Rank Name Federal subject Pop.
Moscow
Moscow
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg 1 Moscow Moscow 13,274,285 11 Samara Samara Oblast 1,154,223 Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk
Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg
2 Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 5,652,922 12 Rostov-on-Don Rostov Oblast 1,143,123
3 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Oblast 1,637,266 13 Omsk Omsk Oblast 1,101,367
4 Yekaterinburg Sverdlovsk Oblast 1,548,187 14 Voronezh Voronezh Oblast 1,041,722
5 Kazan Tatarstan 1,329,825 15 Perm Perm Krai 1,027,518
6 Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Krai 1,211,756 16 Volgograd Volgograd Oblast 1,012,219
7 Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod Oblast 1,198,245 17 Saratov Saratov Oblast 886,165
8 Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk Oblast 1,176,770 18 Tyumen Tyumen Oblast 872,077
9 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,166,098 19 Tolyatti Samara Oblast 662,683
10 Krasnodar Krasnodar Krai 1,154,885 20 Makhachkala Dagestan 625,322
Language
Main articles: Russian language and Languages of Russia
Minority languages across Russia
Altaic and Uralic languages spoken across Russia
The North Caucasus is ethno-linguistically diverse.[526]
Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[3] It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language.[527] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,[528] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[527]
Russia is a multilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[529][530] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.[531] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[532] However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[533][534]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Russia
Trinity Sunday in Russia; the Russian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a country that had a policy of state atheism.
Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.[535][536] The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church,[535][537] which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."[536] Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".[538][539]
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of peoples in the North Caucasus and some Turkic peoples in the Volga-Ural region.[535][537] Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva.[537] A negligible population practices other religions—such as Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),[540] Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[541] other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism,[542] various movements of Hinduism,[543] Siberian shamanism[544] and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism—among other faiths.[545][546] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country:[547] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[548]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[k] 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[537]
In 2024, the Public Opinion Foundation (FOM) found that 61.8% of Russians identify as Orthodox Christians, 2.6% as other Christians, 9.5% as Muslims, 21.2% as not religious, 1.4% follow other religions and 3.5% are unsure about their belief.[549][550] According to the survey, Orthodoxy is more widespread among women, people aged 60 and older, and people living in the Central and Southern Federal Districts, while Islam is the dominant religion in the North Caucasian Federal District.
Education
Main article: Education in Russia
Moscow State University, the most prestigious educational institution in Russia[551]
Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100%,[552] and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[553] It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.[554] The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education, while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[553] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[555] It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.[556]
Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[557] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[553] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[558]
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[554] first-degree courses usually take five years.[558] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.[559] There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.[560]
Health
Main article: Healthcare in Russia
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance programme.[561] The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[562]
Metallurg, a Soviet-era sanatorium in Sochi[563]
Russia spent 7.39% of its GDP on healthcare in 2021.[564] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[565] Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[6] due to its high male mortality rate.[566] As of 2022, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73 years (68 years for males and 78 years for females),[567][568][569] and it has a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births).[570]
The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.[571] Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.[572] However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,[573] as it remains one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[574] Smoking is another health issue in the country.[575] The country's high suicide rate, although on the decline,[576] remains a significant social issue.[577]
Culture
Main article: Russian culture
The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at night
Russian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development of European literature[578][579] and thought.[580] The Russians have also influenced classical music,[581][582] ballet,[583][584] theatre,[585] mathematics,[467] sport,[586] painting,[587][588] and cinema.[589] The nation has also made pioneering contributions to science and technology and space exploration.[590][591]
Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 21 of which are cultural, while 31 more sites lie on the tentative list.[592] The large global Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry.[59] The Russian Bear and Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country.[593][594] Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.[595]
Holidays
Main article: Public holidays in Russia
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[596] The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[597] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[598] International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that the flower vendors of Moscow often see profits "fiften times" more compared to other holidays.[599] Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[600]
The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg
Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated on 9 May as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square[601] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[602] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union,[603] and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.[604]
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[605] Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[606] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[607] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[608]
Art and architecture
Main articles: Russian artists, Architecture of Russia, and List of Russian architects
Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.[587] The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.[59] In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[609] The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.[610][611] Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.[612]
Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii (1833)
The Winter Palace served as the official residence of the Emperor of Russia
In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[613][614] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism, represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.[615][616] The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,[617] Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.[618]
The history of Architecture of Russia begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the church architecture of Kievan Rus'.[587][619] Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by Byzantine architecture.[587][620] Following Mongol occupation, Kievan Rus' cut its ties with the Byzantine Empire, and Russian architecture saw native innovations, such as the invention of the iconostasis.[587] Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends to the Grand Principality of Moscow, which influenced the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin.[587][621] The 16th century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[622] In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[623]
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.[587] The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century, Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[587] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.[624] Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto architectural style.[625] The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style.[587][626] In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[627] Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau,[628] Constructivism,[629] and Socialist Classicism.[630]
Music
Main article: Music of Russia
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov
Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[581] In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle,[631] and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.[632] The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov,[581] Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,[633] Georgy Sviridov,[634] and Alfred Schnittke.[633]
During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[633] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[635] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[633] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[636] DDT,[637] and Kino;[638] the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[639] Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[640]
Literature and philosophy
Main articles: Russian literature and Russian philosophy
Russian literature is among the world's most influential and developed.[578][579] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.[641] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[578] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[642] Romantic literature permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[643] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.[578]
The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.[578][644] Then, during the Age of Realism,[578] came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels.[645] Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.[578] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,[578][646] while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[647] In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[578][648] Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov,[649] non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky,[578][650] and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.[651][652] The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry.[578] This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, and Konstantin Balmont.[653] It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.[578]
Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as War and Peace.[654]
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include Crime and Punishment[655]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia.[578] Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.[656] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[657] Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature.[578] Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov[658] and Isaac Asimov, who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[659] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[660]
During the post-Soviet 1990s writers are already not recognised as very special guides by most Russians.[578] At the beginning of the 21st century, the most discussed figures, postmodernists Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin remained the leading Russian writers.[661]
Russian philosophy has been influential. Religious and spiritual philosophy is represented by works of Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, Vasily Rozanov, and others.[662] Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, and co-founded the Theosophical Society.[663]
Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian populism.[664] Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism.[665] Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism.[666] Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars.[667] Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism.[668] Leon Trotsky, on the other hand, founded Trotskyism.[669] Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher and writer in the second half of the 20th century.[670] Aleksandr Dugin, known for his fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".[671]
Cuisine
See also: Russian cuisine
Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation, and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties,[672] is very popular across Russia.[673] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[674][675] Pirozhki,[676] blini,[677] and syrniki are native types of pancakes.[678] Beef Stroganoff,[679]: 266 Chicken Kiev,[679]: 320 pelmeni,[680] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[681] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[682] Salads include Olivier salad,[683] vinegret,[684] and dressed herring.[685]
Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[686] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.[687] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[688] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[689] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[690] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[691]
Mass media and cinema
Main articles: Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia
Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe[692]
There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.[693] Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[694] Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[694] Russia has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.[695]
Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as Battleship Potemkin, which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[696][697] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[698][699] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.[700] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[701] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.[589]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[589] The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[702][703] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[589] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[704] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[705]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Russia
Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[706] The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,[707] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.[708] Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[709][710] The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.[711] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[712] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[713] However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.[714]
Maria Sharapova, former world No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.[715]
Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.[586] Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.[716] The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,[717] and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[718] The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[719][720]
Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games.[586] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics, and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.[721] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.[722] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[723] Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[724] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[725] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[726][727] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[728]