Hunter Boot Ltd
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hunter Boot Limited
Formerly North British Rubber Company
Company type Private[1]
Industry Footwear
Founded 1856; 170 years ago[2]
Founder Henry Lee Norris
Headquarters Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Products Wellington boots, other footwear and accessories
Owner Pall Mall Legacy (majority)[3]
Website hunterboots.com
Hunter Boot Limited is a British footwear manufacturing company that is known for its rubber Wellington boots. Originally established in 1856 as the North British Rubber Company, the firm is headquartered in Edinburgh, Scotland. It also has offices in London, New York and Düsseldorf.[4] In addition to rubber boots and other footwear, Hunter sells products such as bags, socks and accessories. It previously made tyres, conveyor belts, combs, golf balls, hot water bottles and rubber flooring. Hunter holds several Royal Warrants as suppliers of waterproof footwear.[5] Green Wellington boots, now manufactured in China,[6] are its best known product.
History
Beginnings
In early January 1856, Henry Lee Norris, an American entrepreneur from Jersey City, New Jersey, and his friend and partner Spencer Thomas Parmelee of New Haven, Connecticut, landed in Scotland to work a patent[clarification needed] of Charles Goodyear for the manufacture of India-rubber overshoes and boots.[7] They arrived in Glasgow and began by searching for a suitable factory, which they eventually found at the Castle Mill in Edinburgh. A fine pair of condensing steam engines and boilers were included in the lease, which they were able to take up almost immediately due to the mill's partial occupation at the time. The pair were ready to begin operations in the midsummer of 1856. Originally, the company was named Norris & Co., which existed until the first limited liability act was introduced to Great Britain. The North British Rubber Company (which much later became known as Hunter Boot Limited) was registered as a limited liability company in September 1857.[8]
Norris was eventually succeeded at the company by William Erskine Bartlett, who arguably invented what is considered to be the accepted type of car tyre today.[vague][citation needed] Around 1907, the fledgling British Dunlop tyre company bought the 'Bartlett' patent from the North British Rubber Company for US$973,000, in order to acquire the rights to manufacture and distribute tyres under the same name. It is estimated[according to whom?] that, today, the patent would be worth more than US$200,000,000.
The company made not only rubber boots but also tyres, conveyors, combs, golf balls, hot water bottles and rubber flooring. In the beginning, there were only four people working for the company; by 1875, the team had grown to 600. The company had offices in Edinburgh, London and New York.
Wartime production
Production of Wellington boots was dramatically boosted with the advent of World War I, when the company was asked by the War Office to construct a sturdy boot suitable for the conditions in flooded trenches. The mills ran day and night to produce immense quantities of these trench boots. In total, 1,185,036 pairs were made to cope with the Army's demands. The Wellington boot was envied by German soldiers during World War I and its dependability was seen to contribute to the British army's success.[9]
For World War II, the company was again called upon to supply vast quantities of Wellington and thigh boots. Eighty per cent of production was for war materials - from ground sheets to life belts and gas masks. In the Netherlands, forces were working in flooded conditions which demanded Wellingtons and tight boots in vast supplies.
By the end of the war, the Wellington had become popular among men, women and children for wear in wet weather. It had become far roomier with a thick sole and rounded toe. Also, with the rationing of that time, labourers began to use them for daily work.
Post-war period
After World War II, boot making had to move to a larger factory in Heathhall, Dumfries, to deal with the rise in demand. The factory was originally built for Arrol-Johnston (later Arrol-Aster), a Scottish automobile manufacturer, in 1913, before the company was liquidated in 1931.[10] This is said to be the first car factory in Britain to use ferro-concrete (concrete reinforced with metal bars), and was designed by Albert Kahn.[11]
The company's most famous Wellington, the "Original Green Wellington", was first made in the winter of 1955. It was the first orthopaedic boot made by Hunter, and was launched alongside the Royal Hunter - another boot that remained in Hunter's range in 2012.[12] Reaction from trade was slow, and an order of 36 pairs considered an achievement. However, the company persisted, taking them to county shows and trade fairs. Thought of as more up-market than the traditional black Wellington of the time, the 'Original' tended at first to be worn by middle- to upper-class rural people, who are still sometimes referred to as the 'Green Welly Brigade'.
A pair of Hunter 'Original Tall' Wellington boots.
1966–2005: ownership changes
In 1966, North British Rubber was bought by Uniroyal Limited of Greenville, South Carolina. Formerly known as the U.S. Rubber Company, Uniroyal is best known for car tyres and still operates today.[13] In 1976, having continued to supply boots to the royal households, Hunter was awarded a Royal Warrant from the Duke of Edinburgh. This was shortly followed by another from the Queen in 1986. By this time, a pair of Hunter boots had become an essential item[citation needed] for those guided in upmarket country fashion. By the end of the 1980s, they were synonymous with the much caricatured figures of the Sloane Ranger Handbook.
In 1986, Uniroyal was bought by the Gates Rubber Company of Denver, Colorado. From the beginning of 1987, the company was known under the name of its new owner. It entered the drysuit market shortly after the takeover by Gates, at its peak becoming the number two producer in the market with a 35% market share. Its fortunes continued to improve over the next ten years until, in 1996, Gates Corporation, formerly known as The Gates Rubber Company, became a wholly owned subsidiary of Tomkins plc, ending 85 years of ownership by the Gates family. Tomkins paid a reported £366m for the stake.[14] At that time, Gates was the largest non-tyre rubber company in the world.[15]
Intent on strengthening its positions in its core engineering markets, Tomkins began to dispose of a number of businesses during the period 1998-2001. In 1999, it sold the Consumer and Industrial Division of The Gates Rubber Company to Interfloor, the country's largest carpet underlay manufacturer. The company became the Hunter Division of Interfloor.
In early 2004, a management-led investor group acquired the Hunter Boots business of Interfloor Group Ltd for £1.98m in a leveraged buyout transaction.[16] For the first time, Hunter became an independent company under its own name, specifically, the Hunter Rubber Company.
At the end of 2004, Hunter announced that they would be releasing a range of seven different coloured Wellingtons to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Green Wellington Boot. Each different coloured boot, along with the kids' range, represented one of eight charities and were used to raise funds for them.[17] The company launched a dedicated website, www.giving-welly.co.uk, to this purpose, and raised over £250,000 for charity.[citation needed]
Hunter launched several extensions to the Wellington range in mid-2005. Along with developing boots under licence for the Royal Horticultural Society, the Lady Northampton riding boot, combining a molded waterproof rubber and canvas upper, was also added to extend from the company's traditional all-rubber Wellington boot range.
2006: administration and buy-out
In 2006, the Hunter Rubber Company was placed into administration due to cash flow problems. In spite of a reported turnover of over £5m, accountants from KPMG said the firm suffered from high manufacturing costs, including fuel costs, and made a loss from the expansion of its business to the United States. According to documents filed with Companies House, Hunter reported a loss of £600,000 from September 2003 to the end of February 2005, when it had a net debt of £2.03m.[18][19]
A private consortium led by Lord Marland of Odstock and comprising Peter Mullen, ex CEO of Thomas Pink, and Julian Taylor, all of whom were previous shareholders in Hunter Rubber Company, supported by the Pentland Group plc, bought Hunter out of administration and Hunter Boot Ltd was born.[20] After rapid re-structuring of the company, new supply routes and distribution partners were found in the UK and USA and the Hunter portfolio was rationalised to core products exhibiting the key skills and tradition of the company.[vague]
Hunter regained a large market share of the traditional country and leisure footwear market in the UK after the buy-out, and positioned itself as a strong contender in the USA - opening showrooms on 7th Avenue in New York and Regent Street in London.[21] A new management team retained many of the staff from Hunter Rubber.
In November 2006, Hunter Diving Ltd - the arm of Hunter Rubber that was responsible for manufacturing drysuits - was sold to Swedish rival company Trelleborg Group for an undisclosed sum.[22]
2007–present
Spring 2007 saw the relationship between Hunter and the Royal Horticultural Society further strengthened by the launch of a new range of RHS boots at the Chelsea Flower Show in London in May.[23] Hunter also set up the 'Century' Division to handle its global range of safety boots, and to develop new products in this sector. A little over a year later, Century Safety was acquired by the Tigar Corporation for an undisclosed sum.[citation needed]
Hunter Boot Ltd enjoyed a record season in summer 2007 announcing, in August, an 85% sales increase against the same period in 2006[24] Despite this, Hunter remained faced with major financial challenges regarding production. High manufacturing and fuel costs that contributed to the company's move into administration in 2006 remained prominent and, like many UK manufacturing businesses, Hunter was forced to consider whether it was worth manufacturing in the UK. The company also had to negotiate a volatile relationship with its landlord and an expensive and inefficient 96-year-old factory. Eventually, alternative supply sources were sought and developed in Europe and the Far East and plans were made to leave the Dumfries plant and move the company HQ to Edinburgh.[25] This move was finally made in September 2008. The Chinese made boots look like the original Scottish made boots apart from the addition of an internal seam. Some manufacturing efficiencies have also been made including the removal of the latex dipping process, making the boots virtually identical to those from many other manufacturers.
Hunter formed many relationships and collaborations with other brands in 2008, further extending its reach into the US, festival and fashion markets, while also contributing strongly to charity organisations. It produced versions of the classic Hunter Original boot for Jack Wills, WaterAid,[26] Cowshed[27] and Fortnum & Mason,[28] as well as a trench coat designed by Suzy Radcliffe, owner of denim brand Radcliffe.[29]
In September 2008, following the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, Hunter Boot Ltd sent specially made gold Wellington boots to every member of the Great Britain Olympic team who won a gold medal at the games.[30]
In January 2009, Hunter announced that it would be collaborating with the fashion designer Jimmy Choo for a limited edition black Wellington boot, embossed with Jimmy Choo crocodile print and containing gold rivets and a leopard-print lining. Another boot was then launched in 2011.[31][32]
The Hunter boot tooling from the Scottish factory, and the manufacturing technique, is now used in Eastern Europe (Serbia) by Tigar Footwear and the products are marketed as Century Boots.[citation needed]
In 2012, Searchlight Capital Partners, with headquarters in Europe and North America, became the new controlling shareholder in Hunter Boot Ltd.[33]
In 2013, Alasdhair Willis was appointed Creative Director[34][35] and two new brand categories Hunter Original and Hunter Field were introduced. The launch of Hunter Original has seen four pioneering catwalk shows at London Fashion Week showcasing new footwear, outerwear and accessories alongside the Original boot. Hunter Field is a technical[vague] collection. Introduced in SS15, a new Hunter Field logo was developed in Field Green to differentiate the two brands. [36] The Balmoral Field boot is a technical style and features a Newflex Vibram outsole for extended use.[37]
In 2014, Hunter opened its first global flagship[vague] on London's Regent Street. The award-winning[vague] store takes inspiration from the brand's heritage presenting the full Hunter Original, Hunter Field and Hunter Kids collections over three floors. In the same year, magician Steven Frayne, also known as Dynamo, worked with Hunter to become an integral part of their London Fashion Week show. Frayne appeared to levitate and then made models, including Suki Waterhouse, vanish in front of the crowd which included Stella McCartney and Anna Wintour.[38][39][40] In 2015, in collaboration with Checkland Kindleysides, Hunter won Best Store Concept at the VM Excellence Awards. A second global flagship was opened in the Ginza district of Tokyo in 2016.[41] In 2016, Hunter launched the Duke of Wellington by Hunter Field collection, a range of all-purpose equestrian outerwear and footwear.[42] Vincent Wauters was appointed CEO.[43] [44] Hunter continues to be chosen by festival goers the world over, and is particularly synonymous with the mud-filled Glastonbury Festival. Kate Moss first wore her Original Tall boots to Glastonbury in 2005, while recent years have seen Alexa Chung in the Original Chelsea Boot, Cara Delevingne wearing the Original Backpack and Niall Horan in Hunter Original outerwear.[45]
In 2016, Hunter launched its Core collection,[46] a range of weatherproof Hunter boots in an array of colours. "Rain Starts Play" was coined as a hashtag for the launch.[47]
In June 2023 Hunter Boot went into administration owing creditors £112.8 million. The administrator stated, that the company had been on a decline as a result of reduced demand in combination with the pandemic, supply chain disruption and inflation.[48] On 30 June 2023 Hunter Boot filed for creditor protection under the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act in Canada.[49]
In popular culture
The stage play Sweet F.A. dramatized the real-life women's association football club formed during World War I by the company's workers in its Fountainbridge, Edinburgh factory. The play was performed at the 2021 Edinburgh Festival Fringe festival on a stage built on the main stand of Tynecastle Park.[50][51]
See also
Mackintosh (brand)
Gumboot Day
William's Wish Wellingtons
References
"Company information". Companies House. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
Hunter Boot history
Hunter strengthens balance sheet with recapitalisation
"About Us". Hunter Boots. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
Vanessa Barford (12 July 2013). "Royal warrants: What they tell us about the Royal Family". BBC. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
Sibun, Jonathan (14–15 February 2009). "Hunter Boots owner Lord Marland looks for new prey: Former Tory treasurer says his company's recent success is down to chance / Marland hunts for new prey LORD MARLAND OF ODSTOCK Former Tory treasurer tells Jonathan Sibun his company's recent success is down to chance". Sunday Telegraph. London, England. p. 8. Gale A193749452. ProQuest 309577537.
Woodruff, William (October 1955). "The American origins of a Scottish industry". Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 2 (3): 17–31. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9485.1955.tb00739.x. eISSN 1467-9485. ISSN 0036-9292.
Woodruff, William (December 1958). Rise of British Rubber Industry During Nineteenth Century. Liverpool University Press. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-85323-462-3.
Edwards, Adam (19 October 2006). A Short History of the Wellington Boot. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-340-92138-8.
Georgano, N. (2000). Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile. London: HMSO. ISBN 978-1-57958-293-7.
Historic Environment Scotland. "Heathall Uniroyal Factory (Category B Listed Building LB3819)". Retrieved 20 March 2019.
"Hunter Original Green". hunter-boot.com. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
"Uniroyal History and Values". Uniroyal.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
Harrison, Michael (2 July 2003). "Tomkins buys half Gates' stake for £366m". BUSINESS. The Independent. London, England. p. 19. ISSN 0951-9467. Gale A104590171. NewsBank 132AD43950E79B30. Newspapers.com 721269246. Retrieved 9 April 2025.
"Gates Corporation & Tomkins plc". gates.com. Archived from the original on 14 November 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
"Disposal of Hunter Boots by Interfloor". rutlandpartners.com. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
"Charity Hunter wellies raise vital funds". horseandhound.co.uk. Retrieved 25 November 2008.
Akbar, Arifa (12 April 2006). "Hunter's, wellingtons to the gentry, mired in trouble as fortunes slide". Independent.co.uk. London. Archived from the original on 5 January 2010. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
"Job fears at wellington boot firm". BBC.co.uk. 11 April 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
"Buyer found for famous boot firm". BBC.co.uk. 28 April 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
Fields, Julia; Taylor, Kirsty (11–12 November 2006). "Scots firm gives it welly on Fifth Avenue; FASHION: HUNTER WELLINGTONS; Dumfries-based company leaves troubles at home to stride into US market with celebrity-backed boots". Sunday Herald. Glasgow, Scotland, UK. p. 3. Gale A154389060. ProQuest 331271478.
"Diving firm sold in Swedish deal". BBC.co.uk. 8 November 2006. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
"RHS Original". Hunter-Boot.com. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
"Wet gives Hunter sales some welly". BUSINESS : Business News IN BRIEF. The Independent. London, England. 11 August 2007. p. 52. NewsBank 11AF62D174A3D098. Newspapers.com 723162433.
"Boot firm to end Scots production". BBC.co.uk. 2 May 2008. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
"Hunter". WaterAid.co.uk. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
"Hunter Wellies". CowshedOnline.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
"Fortnum & Mason Boot". FortnumAndMason.com. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
"Suzy Radcliffe for Hunter". Vogue.co.uk. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 18 November 2008.
"The Hoy Life". dailyrecord.co.uk. 9 September 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2008.
"Hunter and Jimmy Choo Hiker Boot". hunter-boot.com. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
"Jimmy Choo Collaborate with Hunter Wellies". shudoo.co.uk. Retrieved 12 February 2009.
"HUNTER TO PURSUE INTERNATIONAL GROWTH WITH NEW INVESTOR". searchlightcap.com. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
Paton, Elizabeth (2 November 2016). "Alasdhair Willis, Hunter Boot Man, Doesn't Mind the Rain". The New York Times.
"Alasdhair Wills Creative Director". creativereview.co.uk. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
"London Fashion Week". countryandtownhouse.co.uk.
"Hunter wellies". shootinguk.co.uk. Archived from the original on 24 September 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
Marriott, Hannah (16 February 2014). "The boot's on the other foot as Stella McCartney's husband takes to the catwalk". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
"London Fashion Week 2014: Alasdhair Willis unveils new Hunter". Evening Standard. 16 February 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
"Hunter makes its London Fashion Week debut with magic by Dynamo - Telegraph". fashion.telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
"Hunter in Tokyo". sidewalkhustle.com. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
"Hunter Field Duke wellington". countryandtownhouse.co.uk.
"Hunter Enlists New CEO for Next Phase". 9 February 2016.
"Vincent Wauters As New CEO". footwearnews.com. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
"Glastonbury day". mirror.co.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
"Core Collection". vancouversun.com. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
"Rain Starts Play". inlondonmagazine.com. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
"Hunter Boots collapse: Iconic footwear brand goes into administration owing £112m". yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk. 17 June 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
"Hunter Boot files for bankruptcy". MNP. 30 June 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2025.
Fisher, Mark (9 August 2021). "Sweet FA review – women's football saga staged at Tynecastle". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
"Fringe drama recalling rise and fall of women's football to be staged at Tynecastle". The Scotsman. 30 June 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
External links
Wikimedia Commons logo
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hunter rubber boots.
Official website
The Hunter Original Boot
Categories: Shoe companies of the United KingdomBootsClothing companies of ScotlandManufacturing companies based in EdinburghBritish companies established in 1856Clothing companies established in 1856Companies that have entered administration in the United KingdomCompanies that have filed for bankruptcy in Canada1856 establishments in ScotlandScottish brandsShoe brands
Wellington boot
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Gumboots" and "Gumboot" redirect here. For the Paul Simon song, see Graceland (album).
Modern polyurethane Wellington boots
A Wellington boot, gumboot, rubber boot, rain boot, rainboot, or welly for short, is a type of waterproof boot made of rubber.[1][2]
Originally a type of leather riding boot adapted from Hessian boots, a style of military foot wear, Wellington boots were worn and popularised by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. They became a staple of practical foot wear for the British aristocracy and middle class in the early 19th century. The term was subsequently applied to waterproof rubber boots ubiquitously worn today in a range of agricultural and outdoors pursuits.
Names
The term Wellington boot comes from Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, who instructed his shoemaker to create the boot by modifying the design of the Hessian boot.[3] The terms gumboot and rubber boot are both derived from the rubber modern Wellington boots are made from, with the term "gum" coming from gum rubber.[4]
The terms Wellington boot and gumboot are most commonly used in British English, with the term being occasionally used in American English. Instead, the terms rubber boot and rain boot are more commonly used in American English.[1][2] Further, in American English, the term Wellington boot is sometimes used to specifically refer to Wellington boots with a more fashionable design.[1]
History
Origins
The Duke of Wellington by James Lonsdale, 1815, wearing tasselled Hessian boots
The Duke of Wellington instructed his shoemaker, Hoby of St. James's Street, London, to modify the formal 18th-century Hessian boot, shown in the 1815 portrait by James Lonsdale, recognizable by their tassel.[5] The resulting new boot was fabricated in soft calfskin leather, had the trim removed and was cut to fit more closely around the leg. The heels were low cut, stacked around an inch (2.5 centimetres), and the boot stopped at mid-calf. It was suitably hard-wearing for riding, yet smart enough for informal evening wear. The boot was dubbed the Wellington and the name has stuck in English ever since.
Dress Wellington boots, c. 1845
Wellington's utilitarian new boots quickly caught on with patriotic British gentlemen eager to emulate their war hero.[6] Considered fashionable and foppish in the best circles and worn by dandies, such as Beau Brummell, they remained the main fashion for men through the 1840s. In the 1850s they were more commonly made in the calf-high version, and in the 1860s they were both superseded by the ankle boot, except for riding. Wellington is one of the two British Prime Ministers to have given his name to an item of clothing, the other being Sir Anthony Eden (see Anthony Eden hat) whilst Sir Winston Churchill gave his name to a cigar, and William Gladstone (four times prime minister between 1868 and 1894) gave his to the Gladstone Bag, the classic doctor's portmanteau.
World War I
Production of the Wellington boot was dramatically boosted with the advent of World War I and a requirement for footwear suitable for the conditions in Europe's flooded and muddy trenches. The North British Rubber Company (now Hunter Boot Ltd) was asked by the War Office to construct a boot suitable for such conditions. The mills ran day and night to produce immense quantities of these trench boots. In total, 1,185,036 pairs were made to meet the British Army's demands.[citation needed]
World War II
In World War II, Hunter Boot was again requested to supply vast quantities of Wellington and thigh boots. 80% of production was of war materials, from (rubber) ground sheets to life belts and gas masks. In the Netherlands, the British forces were working in flooded conditions which demanded Wellingtons and thigh boots in vast supplies.
By the end of the war in 1945, the Wellington had become popular among men, women and children for wet weather wear. The boot had developed to become far roomier with a thick sole and rounded toe. Also, with the rationing of that time, labourers began to use them for daily work.
Post-war
Modern Hunter natural rubber Wellington boots
The lower cost and ease of rubber "Wellington" boot manufacture, and being entirely waterproof, lent itself immediately to being the preferred protective material to leather in all forms of industry. Increased attention to occupational health and safety requirements led to the steel toe or steel-capped Wellington: a protective (commonly internal) toe-capping to protect the foot from crush and puncture injuries. Although traditionally made of steel, the reinforcement may be a composite or a plastic material such as thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). Such steel-toe Wellingtons are nearly indispensable in an enormous range of industry and are often mandatory wear to meet local occupational health and safety legislation or insurance requirements.
In July 1956, the Monopolies and Restrictive Practices Commission published its Report on the Supply of Certain Rubber Footwear,[7] which covered rubber boots of all kinds including Wellingtons and overboots. This 107-page official publication addressed contemporary concerns about unfair pricing of rubber footwear manufactured in the UK or imported from overseas. The appendices include lists of rubber footwear manufacturers and price-lists of each company's range of Wellington boots available in the mid-1950s.
Green Wellington boots, introduced by Hunter Boot Ltd in 1955, gradually became a shorthand for "country life" in the UK.[8] In 1980, sales of their boots skyrocketed after Lady Diana Spencer (future Princess Diana) was pictured wearing a pair on the Balmoral estate during her courtship with Prince Charles.[8][9]
The boots are synonymous with the Glastonbury festival, due to both their practical use and their place in fashion trends.[10]
Construction
Wellington boots were at first made of leather. However, in 1852 Hiram Hutchinson met Charles Goodyear, who had just invented the sulfur vulcanisation process for natural rubber. Hutchinson bought the patent to manufacture footwear and moved to France to establish À l'Aigle ("At the Eagle") in 1853, to honour his home country. Today the company is simply called Aigle. In a country where 95% of the population were working on fields with wooden clogs as they had been for generations, the introduction of the wholly waterproof, Wellington-type rubber boot became an instant success: farmers would be able to come back home with clean, dry feet.
Design
Clockwise from top: Sperry Top-Sider, Le Chameau, Jeantex, Aigle, Gill, Helly-Hansen and Newport short and tall rubber sailing Wellingtons
Wellington boots in contemporary usage are waterproof and are most often made from rubber or polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a halogenated polymer. They are usually worn when walking on wet or muddy ground, or to protect the wearer from heavy showers and puddles.
They are generally just below knee-high although shorter boots are available. British Standard 5145 tabulates minimum heights for rubber boots thus.[11]
Type Men's Women's
Ankle 135 mm 135 mm
Half knee 190 mm 190 mm
Short knee 275 mm 260 mm
Knee 350 mm 300 mm
Three quarter thigh 660 mm –
Full thigh 720 mm –
Use
[icon]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding missing information. (July 2024)
The primary use of rainboots is for foot protection on rainy days.
Colourful printed rubber Wellingtons
Before its entry into the mobile phone business, rubber boots were among the best-known products of Nokia.[12][13]
Both the Finnish Defence Forces and the Swedish Armed Forces issue rubber boots to all soldiers for use in wet conditions and during the winter with felt liners.[14]
Cultural impact
Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher was Wellington's colleague at the Battle of Waterloo and there is speculation that some early emigrants to Australia, remembering the battle, may have confused a different design the Blucher shoe developed by Blucher. The Australian poet Henry Lawson wrote a poem to a pair of Blucher Boots in 1890.[15]
The boots are a key plot device in British author Jilly Cooper's children's book Little Mabel Saves the Day.[16]
See also
List of boots
List of shoe styles
British country clothing
Galoshes
Mackintosh (raincoat)
Paddington Bear
Vermin Supreme
Waders (footwear)
William's Wish Wellingtons
Welly wanging
References
Tuft, Karen (30 March 2022). "What Do Americans Call Wellies? (Inc Wellies History)". Wonderful Wellies. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
University, Yeshiva. "A Brief History of the Rain Boot". Treehugger. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
"Wellington Boots". The Fashiongton Post. 3 September 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
Sole, Steve. "Gumboots". New Zealand Geographic. Retrieved 1 July 2024.
"James Lonsdale's portrait of Wellington". Gac.culture.gov.uk. 25 January 2019. Archived from the original on 2 September 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
Christopher Breward, “Men in Heels: From Power to Perversity,” in Shoes: Pleasure and Pain, ed. Helen Persson (London: V&A Publishing, 2015), 137; Matthew McCormack, “Boots, Material Culture and Georgian Masculinities,” Social History 42, no. 4 (2017): 475–478
Monopolies and Restrictive Practices Commission, Report on the Supply of Certain Rubber Footwear, London: HMSO, 1956. Full text retrieved on 22 February 2019 at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20111202181215/http://www.competition-commission.org.uk/rep_pub/reports/1950_1959/015footware.htm.
"Will Kate kick off a war of the Wellies?". The Telegraph. 17 June 2015.
"These were the boots that shaped the world". The Telegraph. 17 June 2015. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015.
Allaire, Christian (24 June 2022). "How Wellington Boots Became A Cool Festival-Girl Staple". British Vogue.
BSI Group, Specification for lined industrial rubber boots, published January 1975, accessed 9 June 2021.
"London Telegraph". The Telegraph. Telegraph.co.uk. 16 February 2016. Archived from the original on 11 September 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
"Finnish Footwear Sale". New York Times. 28 November 1989. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
"Gummistövlar M/90 /K". Dokument.forsvarsmakten.se. Archived from the original on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
"'To a Pair of Blucher Boots' by Henry Lawson". Archived from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
Cooper, Jilly (1985). Little Mabel Saves the Day. Granada.
External links
Wikimedia Commons logo
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rubber boots.
Nicholson, Jon, Rubber Boots: Understanding an Industry (PDF), NorthStar Rubber Specialties, L.L.C.
Nicholson, Jon, Rubber Hacks and Compromises: Notes from Lab, Field, and Factory Floor (PDF), NorthStar Rubber Specialties, L.L.C.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Boot (disambiguation).
"Boots" redirects here. For the company, see Boots (company).
A black leather ankle boot with studded embellishments
Ancient Greek pair of terracotta boots. Early geometric period cremation burial of a woman, 900 BC, Ancient Agora Museum, Athens.
A boot is a type of footwear. Most boots mainly cover the foot and the ankle, while some also cover some part of the lower calf. Some boots extend up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee or even the hip. Most boots have a heel that is clearly distinguishable from the rest of the sole, even if the two are made of one piece. Traditionally made of leather or rubber, modern boots are made from a variety of materials.
Boots are worn both for their functionality and for reasons of style and fashion. Functional concerns include: protection of the foot and leg from water, mud, pestilence (infectious disease, insect bites and stings, snake bites), extreme temperatures, sharp or blunt hazards (e.g. work boots may provide steel toes), physical abrasion, corrosive agents, or damaging radiation; ankle support and traction for strenuous activities such as hiking; and durability in harsh conditions (e.g. the underside of combat boots may be reinforced with hobnails).
In some cases, the wearing of boots may be required by laws or regulations, such as the regulations in some jurisdictions requiring workers on construction sites to wear steel-toed safety boots. Some uniforms include boots as the regulated footwear. Boots are recommended as well for motorcycle riders. High-top athletic shoes are generally not considered boots, even though they do cover the ankle, primarily due to the absence of a distinct heel.
History
Oxhide boots from Loulan, Xinjiang, China. Former Han dynasty 220 BC – AD 8
Early boots consisted of separate leggings, soles, and uppers worn together to provide greater ankle protection than shoes or sandals. Around 1000 BC, these components were more permanently joined to form a single unit that covered the feet and lower leg, often up to the knee. A type of soft leather ankle boots were worn by nomads in eastern Asia and carried to China to India and Russia around AD 1200 to 1500 by Mongol invaders. The Inuit and Aleut natives of Alaska developed traditional winter boots of caribou skin or sealskin featuring decorative touches of seal intestine, dog hair and suchlike. 17th century European boots were influenced by military styles, featuring thick soles and turnover tops that were originally designed to protect horse mounted soldiers. In the 1700s, distinctive, thigh-high boots worn by Hessian soldiers fighting in the American Revolutionary War influenced the development of the iconic heeled cowboy boots worn by cattlemen in the American west.[1]
Purpose
Practical uses
A pair of ISO 20345:2004 compliant S3 steel-toed safety boots designed for construction workers
A pair of hobnailed boots
Fashion boot terminology
A pair of A-12 OXCART flight suit boots
Boots which are designed for walking through snow, shallow water and mud may be made of a single closely stitched design (using leather, rubber, canvas, or similar material) to prevent the entry of water, snow, mud or dirt through gaps between the laces and tongue found in other types of shoes. Waterproof gumboots are made in different lengths of uppers. In extreme cases, thigh-boots called waders, worn by anglers, extend to the hip. Such boots may also be insulated for warmth. With the exception of gum boots, boots sold in general retail stores may be considered "water resistant", as they are not usually fully waterproof, compared to advanced material boots, such as Gore-Tex, used regularly by fishers or hikers.
Speciality boots have been made to protect steelworkers' feet and calves if they accidentally step in puddles of molten metal, to protect workers from a variety of chemical exposure, to protect workers from construction site hazards and to protect feet from extreme cold (e.g., with insulated or inflatable boots for use in Antarctica). Most work boots are "lace ups" made from leather. Formerly they were usually shod with hobnails and heel- and toe-plates, but now can usually be seen with a thick rubber sole, and often with steel toecaps.[2] While gumboots are often used in workplaces, such as underground mines, studies have shown that workers prefer "lace up" boots mainly due to their support and better fit.[3]
Boots are mostly worn with socks to prevent chafes and blisters, to absorb sweat, to improve the foot's grip inside the boot, or to insulate the foot from the cold. Before socks became widely available, footwraps were worn instead.
Specialty boots have been designed for many different types of sports, particularly riding, skiing, snowboarding, ice-skating, and sporting in wet/damp conditions.
Fashion and fetish use
A pair of "classic" black leather Doc Martens. While these boots were originally designed as workwear (they are resistant to petrol, alkaline chemicals and other substances), they were adopted as a fashion item by the skinhead and punk subcultures.
Bovver boots, Doc Martens boots and army boots were adopted by skinheads and punks as part of their typical dress and have migrated to more mainstream fashion, including women's wear.[4] As a more rugged alternative to dress shoes, dress boots may be worn (though these can be more formal than shoes). Fashionable boots for women may exhibit all the variations seen in other fashion footwear: tapered or spike heels, platform soles, pointed toes, zipper closures and the like. The popularity of boots as fashion footwear ebbs and flows. Singer Nancy Sinatra popularized the fad of women wearing boots in the late 1960s with her song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'". They were popular in the 1960s and 1970s (particularly knee-high boots), but diminished in popularity towards the end of the 20th century. In the 2010s, they experienced a resurgence in popularity, especially designs with a long bootleg.[citation needed][vague] Boot bolos, boot bracelets, boot straps, boot chains, and boot harnesses are used to decorate boots. Sandal boots also exist.
Boots have become the object of sexual attraction for some people and they have become a standard accessory in the BDSM scene (where leather, latex and PVC boots are favoured) and a fashion accessory in music videos.[5] Knee- or thigh-high leather boots are worn by some strippers and pornography models and actresses. Boots have even become a sexual fetish for devotees known as boot fetishists and foot fetishists.
Types
Cowboy boots
Cowboy boots originated in the 1800s in the plains and desert of the midwest and far Western United States, however they were inspired by the vaquero-style boot bought from Spain to the Americas in the 1600s. Cowboy boots are traditionally tall and hide the calf, which is meant to help keep the foot firmly in the stirrup to keep it firmly anchored. Furthermore, they have angled heels, which help to anchor the foot into the stirrup to prevent it from slipping. The stitching on the leather exterior of the boots also serve a utilitarian purpose, to prevent the shaft of the boot from folding over.[6]
The boots become popular in post-Civil War America, when the country saw a switch from military boots to cowboy boots. Hollywood also saw a further rise in popularity of the boots due to the increase of mid-Western cowboy films on the big screen.[7] Cowboy boots have also gained popularity as practical work footwear, combining functionality with a distinctive sense of style.[8][9]
In the summer of 2022, cowboy boots were seen making a comeback into mainstream fashion, with, as of 8 August 2022, there being over 379.7 million views on the hashtag #CowboyBoots on TikTok.[10] Cowboy boots were seen on many in the fields of festivals such as Coachella, and being worn by many mainstream celebrities such as Dua Lipa, Emily Ratajkowski and Bella Hadid.[11] Variations of the classic cowboy boot were also being sold in many high-street stores such as Mango, ASOS and Urban Outfitters,[12] and were seen on the runways for high fashion brands such as Miu Miu and Bottega.[11]
Hiking boots
Main article: Hiking boot
Safety boots
Main article: Steel-toe boot
Boot parts and accessories
Boot hooks (left) and a boot jack (right) are sometimes needed to put on or take off some types of boots
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This section needs expansion. You can help by adding missing information. (July 2015)
Spats
Boot jack
For the parts of a boot, see Hiking boot#Parts
As symbols
In heraldry
Coat of arms of Aresches municipality in France displays a boot in the heraldic left field
Boots have been used by riders for millennia, and were used by knights. As a consequence, albeit not common, boots came to be used as charges in heraldry.
Because of the origin of heraldry as insignia used by mounted warriors like the medieval knights, when boots are used in heraldry, they are often displayed as riding boots, even if the blazon might not specify it as such. They are sometimes adorned with spurs, which may or may not have another tincture (colour) than the boot and the background field.
Boots were also used in coats of arms of shoemakers' guilds and in shop signs outside their shops.
Giant boot at Marikina Shoe Museum replacing the damaged Giant shoes of Marikina
Idioms and cultural references
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Further information: bootstrapping and booting
Boots that are particularly old and well worn, or a similarly tough item are referred to as being tough and strong with the phrase "tough as old boots."[13]
A discarded boot may be used in the construction of a musical instrument known as the "mendoza."
Tall (high) boots may have a tab, loop or handle at the top known as a bootstrap, allowing one to use fingers or a tool to provide better leverage in getting the boots on. The figurative use "to pull one's self up by one's bootstraps" in the sense of "ability to perform a difficult task without external help" developed in the 19th century in US English.[14] The term "bootstrapping" was subsequently used in a metaphorical sense in a number of fields, notably computing (which uses the term "bootup" to describe the process of starting a computer) and in entrepreneurship, which uses the term "bootstrapping" to describe start-up companies which are launched without major external financing.
To "die with one's boots on" means to die while one is still actively involved in work or to go down fighting. Popularized by Wild West movies.[15]
Boot camp: a colloquial term for the initial recruit training of a new recruit enlisting in a military organization or armed force. In this context, a "boot" is just such a recruit.
Stormtroopers and other agents of authority or units used for political strongarm tactics such as intimidation are typically referred to by their detractors as "jackbooted thugs," a reference to the hobnailed military jackboot of the World War I German Stormtrooper and later Nazi uniform. Authoritarian rule, either by hostile military forces, or by groups of armed intimidators, is imposed by "jackboot tactics."
To "give one the boot" means to kick one out (of a job, a club, etc.) or expel one, either literally or figuratively.
To "put the boot in" is an idiom for inflicting violence on someone.
"The boot is on the other foot now" means that a situation has become reversed—a previous victor is now losing, for example.
Wearing "seven-league boots" references a classic children's fairy tale and indicates that a person or company can cover great distances, figuratively or literally, in a single stride.
To "shake/quake in one's boots" means to be very frightened, and is mostly used sarcastically.
"Knocking boots" is slang for having sex, regardless of whether either person is wearing boots.
The country of Italy is referred to as "lo Stivale" ("The Boot") due to its shape.
See also
List of boots
List of shoe styles
Boot cut
Boot fetishism
Boots theory
Gumboot dance
Wellie wanging
References
McDonald, Fiona (30 July 2006). Shoes and Boots Through History. Gareth Stevens. ISBN 978-0-8368-6857-9. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
"Making Sure Your Work Boots Make the Grade". Drew's Boots. Retrieved November 11, 2018.
George, Thomas. "What are the most comfortable men's boots?". Thomas George Collection. Retrieved 2021-07-19.
DeMello, Margo, ed. (1 September 2009). "Class". Feet and footwear: a cultural encyclopedia. Macmillan. pp. 65–. ISBN 978-0-313-35714-5. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
Alex Henderson (Jan 8, 2014). "Kinky Boots: An Enduring Symbol in Fetish Fashion". XBIZ.
"The History Of Cowboy Boots". Western Boot Barn. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
Co, Buffalo Jackson Trading. "The History Of Cowboy Boots". Buffalo Jackson Trading Co. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
"The Definitive Guide to the Best Cowboy and Western Boots". Country Living. 2025-03-07. Retrieved 2025-11-12.
"Main types of Work Boots - Explained, Demystified and illustrated | WorkWear.org". 2022-08-11. Retrieved 2025-11-12.
"Hand-Painted Floral Cowboy Boots? Yes, Please". The Zoe Report. 8 August 2022. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
"Cowboy Boots Will Be In Every Festival Field & Park This Summer". British Vogue. 2022-06-09. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
"17 best cowboy boots for 2022: From ASOS, Zara, River Island & more". HELLO!. 2022-04-30. Retrieved 2022-10-20.
""as tough as old boots" phrase". American English Thesaurus (Thesaurus). Macmillan Publishers Limited 2009–2012. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
Zimmer, Benjamin (August 11, 2005). "figurative "bootstraps" (1834)". listserv.linguistlist.org (Mailing list). American Dialect Society. It's been widely suggested that the "bootstrap" metaphor originated in the legendary tales of Baron von Münchhausen. As Chris Waigl recently pointed out on the Eggcorn Database (commenting on "boots-trap"), the original German version has a scene in which Münchhausen gets out of a swamp by pulling on his own hair. In an American retelling (supposedly), the Baron uses his bootstraps to pull himself out of a similar predicament. None of the 19th-century cites I've seen allude to the Münchhausen story -- instead, they often refer to pulling oneself over a fence or up a steeple. So if Münchhausen really pulls himself up by his bootstraps in an American version (which I have yet to verify), then the writer probably took advantage of preexisting imagery for an absurdly impossible task.
boot (Dictionary). The Free Dictionary, 2012 by Farlex, Inc. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sneakers are a type of footwear.
A pair of track shoes with spikes. They are designed for running and demonstrate how footwear can be used for specific purposes. The ultra-lightweight upper ensures the runner's step can be as light as possible and the spikes mean that a more stable foot placement can be achieved.
Footwear or footgear refers to garments worn on the feet, which typically serve the purpose of protection against adversities of the environment such as wear from rough ground; stability on slippery ground; and temperature.
Shoes and similar garments ease locomotion and prevent injuries. Such footwear can also be used for fashion and adornment, as well as to indicate the status or rank of the person within a social structure.
Socks and other hosiery are typically worn additionally between the feet and other footwear for further comfort and relief.
Cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning. This can however also be imposed on specific individuals to place them at a practical disadvantage against shod people, if they are excluded from having footwear available or are prohibited from using any. This usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery, where the groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or not footwear is being worn.
In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples.
In several cultures people remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. Similarly, deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity.
Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers.
History
Footwear has been used by humans since prehistoric times, with paleoclimatology suggesting that they would have been needed in some areas of human settlement by at least 50,000 years ago (BP) during the Last Glacial Period. Fossilised tracks have been found on the South Cape Coast, South Africa, that may date to 130,000 BP.[1] Osteologists have found evidence of the effect of footwear on human remains by around 40,000 years ago.[2] The oldest shoes so far recovered were found on the Spirit Cave mummy, from Great Basin Desert in Nevada, and dating to approximately 10, 600 BP.[3] Another pair of shoes were recovered by a team under Luther Cressman in Fort Rock Cave, Oregon, US, in 1938. They had been preserved under the Mazama Ash deposited c. 5025 BC during the volcanic eruption that formed Crater Lake.[4] In 1999, they were dated to around 10,500–9,300 BP.[5]
The Fort Rock sagebrush sandals from the United States (c. 7300 BC)
The Fort Rock sagebrush sandals from the United States (c. 7300 BC)
Neolithic esparto sandals from Spain (c. 5000 BC)
Neolithic esparto sandals from Spain (c. 5000 BC)
The Areni-1 shoe from Armenia (c. 3500 BC)
The Areni-1 shoe from Armenia (c. 3500 BC)
Ötzi's shoe, made from bearskin, deer hide, and tree bark (c. 3200 BC)
Ötzi's shoe, made from bearskin, deer hide, and tree bark (c. 3200 BC)
Footwraps were the common undershoe until the industrial era (2006)
Footwraps were the common undershoe until the industrial era (2006)
Geta (wooden sandles) have been worn in East Asia, at least since the Liangzhu culture (3400–2250 BCE). Egyptian butchers sometimes wore platform sandals with thicker soles than usual to raise their feet out of the gore. Wealthier Egyptians also sometimes wore platforms.[6][7] The Greeks distinguished a great variety of footwear, particularly different styles of sandals. The heeled cothurnus was part of the standard costume for tragedians, and the effeminate soccus for comedians. Going barefoot, however, was frequently lauded: Spartan boys undergoing military training,[8] Socrates,[9] and Olympic athletes[10] all went without shoes most of the time. Similarly, ancient China considered footwear an important aspect of civilization—particularly embroidered slippers—but often depicted Taoist immortals and gods like Xuanwu barefoot. The Book of Exodus records Moses reverentially removing his shoes at Mount Sinai and the priests likewise went barefoot at the Temple of Solomon before Babylonian customs prevailed and entering houses of worship in footwear became common in Judaism[11][12] and Christianity.
Egyptian sandals (c. 2500 BC to c. 500 BC)
Egyptian sandals (c. 2500 BC to c. 500 BC)
The Jotunheimen shoe from Norway (c. 1800–1100 BC)
The Jotunheimen shoe from Norway (c. 1800–1100 BC)
Greek aryballos of a sandaled foot (c. 500 BC)
Greek aryballos of a sandaled foot (c. 500 BC)
Rhodian aryballos of a shod foot (c. 500 BC)
Rhodian aryballos of a shod foot (c. 500 BC)
Moses removing his shoes at Sinai (c. 1465)
Moses removing his shoes at Sinai (c. 1465)
The Etruscans experienced several footwear trends, including the prominently pointed shoe or boot now known as the calceus repandus.[13] The Romans saw clothing and footwear as unmistakable signs of power and status in society. Patricians typically wore dyed and ornamented shoes of tanned leather with their togas or armor, while plebeians wore rawhide or hobnail boots[8] and slaves were usually required to be barefoot.[14] These class distinctions in footwear seem to have lessened during the imperial period, however, as the emperors appropriated more and more symbols of high status for themselves.[15][16] The Romans were the earliest people currently known to have shaped their right and left shoes distinctly during creation,[2] rather than pulling them tight and allowing them to wear into shape. The Catholic patron saints of shoemaking—Crispin and Crispinian—were martyred during the Diocletianic Persecution.[17]
The carbatina of the bog body Damendorf Man (c. 300 BC)
The carbatina of the bog body Damendorf Man (c. 300 BC)
Patrician calceus on the feet of the Emperor Tiberius (c. 37)
Patrician calceus on the feet of the Emperor Tiberius (c. 37)
Caligae, the hobnailed sandal-boot of Roman legionaries (1st cent.)
Caligae, the hobnailed sandal-boot of Roman legionaries (1st cent.)
Equestrian calceus from a Roman statue in France
Equestrian calceus from a Roman statue in France
Crispin and Crispinian in an Italian print (18th cent.)
Crispin and Crispinian in an Italian print (18th cent.)
In medieval Europe, leather shoes and boots became more common. At first most were simply pieces of leather sewn together and then held tight around the foot with a toggle or drawstring. This developed into the turnshoe, where the sole and upper were sewn together and then turned inside-out to hide and protect the seam and improve water resistance. From the reign of Charlemagne, Byzantine fashions began to influence the west and the pontificalia of the popes and other bishops began to feature greater luxury, including embroidered silk and velvet slippers. By the High Middle Ages, fashion trends periodically prompted sumptuary taxes or regulations and church condemnation for vanity. The 12th-century pigache and 14th- and 15th-century poulaine had elongated toes, often stuffed to maintain their shape. Around the same time, several mendicant orders began practicing discalceation as an aspect of their vows of humility and poverty, going entirely barefoot at all times or only wearing sandals in any weather. From the 1480s, the poulaine was replaced by the duckbill, which had a flat front but soon became impractically wide. The stiff hose of the era usually required fairly soft footwear, which in turn was easier to damage in the dirt and muck of the street and outdoors. This led many people to use wooden-soled calopedes, pattens, or galoshes, overshoes that served as a platform while walking.[18] Particularly in Venice, these platforms were combined with the shoe to make chopines, sometimes so awkwardly high that the wearer required servants to help support them. (Turkish sources, meanwhile, credit the chopines directly to the nalins worn in Ottoman baths and whose height was considered to be a marker of status.)[19]
Byzantine Egyptian slippers decorated in gold (6th cent.)
Byzantine Egyptian slippers decorated in gold (6th cent.)
Medieval turnshoes being made on modern lasts (2016)
Medieval turnshoes being made on modern lasts (2016)
The arms of Poulaines, a French village named for the long-toed medieval shoe
The arms of Poulaines, a French village named for the long-toed medieval shoe
The sabatons of Emperor Maximilian I, done in the poulaine style (1485)
The sabatons of Emperor Maximilian I, done in the poulaine style (1485)
The French ambassador's duckbill shoes in Hans Holbein's The Ambassadors (1533)
The French ambassador's duckbill shoes in Hans Holbein's The Ambassadors (1533)
German sabatons done in the duckbill style (16th cent.)
German sabatons done in the duckbill style (16th cent.)
Modern reconstruction of a Venetian chopine from the 16th cent.
Modern reconstruction of a Venetian chopine from the 16th cent.
By the early modern period, the development of better socks and less stiff hose allowed European footwear to become firmer and more durable. Welting was developed, using a narrow band of leather between the uppers and sole to improve appearance and comfort, increase water resistance, and simplify repair, particularly resoling worn shoes. Beginning with the 1533 marriage of the 14-year-old Florentine Catherine de Medici to Prince Henry of France,[16] both male and female royalty and nobles began wearing high heels, giving rise to the expression "well heeled".[20][21] This was done sometimes for display or appearance and sometimes as an aid to riding in stirrups. For the most part, male footwear was more ornate and expensive because women's feet were usually covered by the large dresses of the era.[2] Shoe fetishism was first publicized in the work of Nicolas-Edme Rétif in prerevolutionary France.[22] 17th-century Cavalier boots developed into upper-class fashion and into sailing boots prized by fishermen and pirates before being replaced as military gear by the 18th-century Hessian and 19th-century Wellington boot. In Ming and Qing China, foot binding led to the development of lotus shoes for Han women and then flowerpot shoes for the Manchu women who wanted to emulate the characteristic walk of women with bound feet without undergoing the process themselves. In Africa, North America, and Spanish and Portuguese South America, slave codes often mandated slaves should be barefoot at all times without exception.[23] Following its independence, the American South was an exception. Its demand for masses of low-quality shoes for its slaves was met by workshops in Boston, Philadelphia, and New York, a dependence that later hobbled the Confederate Army during the Civil War[24] and became responsible in legend for the decisive Battle of Gettysburg.[25]
Louis XIV of France in chunky heels (c. 1700)
Louis XIV of France in chunky heels (c. 1700)
The mule flying from the woman's foot in Fragonard's Happy Accidents of the Swing (c. 1768)
The mule flying from the woman's foot in Fragonard's Happy Accidents of the Swing (c. 1768)
19th-century Moccasins of the Cree and Blackfoot, partially modified following first contact with Europeans
19th-century Moccasins of the Cree and Blackfoot, partially modified following first contact with Europeans
Qing-era lotus shoes, worn by Han women with bound feet
Qing-era lotus shoes, worn by Han women with bound feet
Manchu flowerpot shoes intended to mimic the same gait
Manchu flowerpot shoes intended to mimic the same gait
Brogans of the type worn by both sides of the American Civil War
Brogans of the type worn by both sides of the American Civil War
Boots supposedly worn by Abraham Lincoln at his assassination (1930s/40s)
Boots supposedly worn by Abraham Lincoln at his assassination (1930s/40s)
Amid the Industrial Revolution, John Adam Dagyr's introduction of assembly line production[16][26] and tight quality control[27] to the "ten-footer" workshops[28] in Lynn, Massachusetts, US, around 1760 is sometimes credited as the first shoe factory.[2] However, although mechanized textile mills greatly reduced the price of proper socks, each step of the shoemaking process still needed to be done by hand in a slowly optimized putting-out system.[26][29] The first mechanized systems—developed by Marc Isambard Brunel in 1810 to supply boots to the British Army amid the Napoleonic Wars—failed commercially as soon as the wars were over because the demobilized soldiers reduced the price of manual labor.[30] John Nichols's 1850 adaptation of Howe and Singer's sewing machines to handle binding uppers to soles[31] and the Surinamese immigrant Jan Ernst Matzeliger's 1880 invention of an automatic lasting machine finally allowed true industrialization, taking the productivity of individual workers from 20 or 50 pairs a day to as many as 700, halving prices,[26][32] and briefly making Lynn the center of world shoe production.[33][34] As late as 1865, most men in the industry identified in the census and city directory as general purpose "cordwainers" or "shoemakers"; by 1890, they were almost universally described as "shoe workers" or—more often—by the specific name of their work within the industry: "edgesetter", "heel trimmer", "McKay machine operator".[26] Many were replaced by cheaper immigrants;[26] the Czech Tomáš Baťa joined these workers at Lynn in 1904 and then returned to his own factory in Zlín, Moravia, mechanizing and rationalizing its production while guiding the factory town that developed into a garden city.
A preserved "ten footer" in Stoneham, Massachusetts (2013)
A preserved "ten footer" in Stoneham, Massachusetts (2013)
Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1849
Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1849
American shoemakers demonstrating machinery to visiting Chinese in 1870
American shoemakers demonstrating machinery to visiting Chinese in 1870
Lynn in 1879
Lynn in 1879
Matzeliger's automated laster
Matzeliger's automated laster
Women creating uppers in Lynn in 1895
Women creating uppers in Lynn in 1895
Bata advertisement for their half-price response to the 1920 Depression
Bata advertisement for their half-price response to the 1920 Depression
By the early 20th century, vulcanization had led to the development of plimsolls, deck shoes, rubber boots, galoshes, and waders. The prevalence of trench foot in World War I focused attention on the importance of providing adequate footwear in following conflicts, although this was not always possible. Millions of Chinese soldiers in both the NRA and PLA were obliged to use straw and rope shoes to allow easy replacement on long marches during both World War II and the following civil war,[35] contributing to disease and desertion, particularly among the Nationalists.[36][37] Following the world wars, the increasing importance of professional sports greatly popularized a variety of athletic shoes, particularly sneakers. Major brands such as Converse, Adidas, and Nike used celebrity endorsements from Chuck Taylor, Michael Jordan, Lionel Messi, and others to promote their products. Fashion houses periodically prompted new trends in women's and high-end fashion. In particular, while working for Christian Dior, Roger Vivier popularized the stiletto heel in 1954. (Men's dress shoes have tended to retain 19th-century British looks such as the Oxford shoe and loafers.) Various subcultures have employed distinctive footwear as part of their identity, including winklepickers, Doc Martens, and skate shoes.
Rubber boots ready for shipment in 1917
Rubber boots ready for shipment in 1917
People's Liberation Army straw sandals at the Museum of the People's Revolution (2017)
People's Liberation Army straw sandals at the Museum of the People's Revolution (2017)
Tossed Chuck Taylor All-Stars in Italy (2018)
Tossed Chuck Taylor All-Stars in Italy (2018)
Ballet shoes (2013)
Ballet shoes (2013)
Soccer cleats, known in British as "football boots" (2018)
Soccer cleats, known in British as "football boots" (2018)
Stiletto heels at Cannes (2016)
Stiletto heels at Cannes (2016)
Platform heels and Japanese geta on the London Underground (2006)
Platform heels and Japanese geta on the London Underground (2006)
The international trade in footwear was at first chiefly restricted to American exports to Europe and Europe's exports to its various colonial empires.[38] Assisted by the Marshall Plan after World War II, Italy became the major shoe exporting country in the 1950s.[38][39] It was joined in the 1960s by Japan, which offshored its production to Taiwan, South Korea, and Hong Kong as its own labor became too expensive.[38] In their turn, the Hong Kong manufacturers began moving production to Guangdong in mainland China almost immediately after the establishment of Deng Xiaoping's Opening Up Policy in the early 1980s.[38] Competitors were soon forced to follow suit, including removal of Taiwanese and Korean[40] production to Fujian and to Wenzhou in southern Zhejiang.[38] Similarly, amid Perestroika and the Fall of Communism, Italy dismantled its domestic industry, outsourcing its work to Eastern Europe, which proved less dependable than the Chinese and further eroded their market share.[41] Beginning around the year 2000, China has constantly produced more than half of the world's shoes.[42] As of 2021, footwear is the 30th most traded category internationally;[43] but, while China produces well over 60% of exported footwear,[44] it currently earns less than 36% of the value of the total trade[45] owing to the continuing importance of American, German, and other brands in the North American and European markets.
Assembly line in a French shoe factory (1948)
Assembly line in a French shoe factory (1948)
A cobbler in Cairo, Egypt (2015)
A cobbler in Cairo, Egypt (2015)
A shoe factory in Fridingen, Germany (2016)
A shoe factory in Fridingen, Germany (2016)
Nike factory in Vietnam (2016)
Nike factory in Vietnam (2016)
Shoes and fruit at a Hong Kong market (2007)
Shoes and fruit at a Hong Kong market (2007)
Shoe store in a Beijing mall (2017)
Shoe store in a Beijing mall (2017)
Materials
[icon]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding missing information. (July 2015)
Modern footwear is usually made of leather or plastic, and rubber. In fact, leather was one of the original materials used for the first versions of a shoe.[46] The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes with the addition of a sheet of metal on the inside. Roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that they would not bend out of shape.
In more recent times, footwear suppliers such as Nike have begun to source environmentally friendly materials.[47]
Components
Typical shoe component location and nomenclature.
Adhesives
Buckle
Counter (footwear): Backstay fitting between upper and lining in heel area and giving structure to back of shoe and supporting ankle.
Eyelet
Heel
Hook
Insole
Outsole
Laces
Shank
Sole
Tack
Tongue (footwear): Part of shoe covering top of foot underneath laces
Tread
Welt
Types
See also: List of shoe styles
Boots
Chukka boots
Combat boots
Cowboy boots
Derby boots
Fashion boots
Go-go boots
Hiking boots
Motorcycle boots
Mukluk
Platform boots
Riding boots
Russian boots
Seaboots
Tabi boots
Tanker boots
Thigh-high boots
Valenki
Veldskoen
Waders
Wellington boots
Winklepickers
Shoes
Bowling shoes are a type of athletic shoe
A football boot based upon a common design used in 2018. Note the absence of a leather tongue, the relatively low rear upper around the heel, and the presence of a sock style fastener. This design helps to ensure maximum flexibility and range of movement. By limiting the potential impingement of the ankle joint by the boot upper, it allows the wearer's gait to be more natural.
Athletic shoes (also known as trainers or sneakers)
Ballet flats
Boat shoes
Brothel creepers
Court shoes (known in the US as pumps)
Espadrilles
Galoshes
Kitten heels
Lace-up shoes
Derby shoes
Oxford shoes
Brogues
Blucher shoes
High-tops
Loafers
Mary Janes
Moccasins
Monks
Mules
Platform shoes
Plimsoll shoes
School shoes
Skate shoes
Tap shoes
Toe shoes
Vibram FiveFingers toe shoes
Sandals
Sandals
Kolhapuri Chappals
Peshawari chappal
Flip-flops (thongs)
Slide
Wörishofer
Avarca, from Balearic Islands
A pair of Sandals
Slippers
Slippers
Closed slippers
Open slippers
Specific footwear
A climbing shoe
Ballet shoes
High-heeled footwear
Climbing shoes
Clogs
Cleats
Football boots
Track spikes
Golf spikes
Crocs
Diabetic shoes
Minimalist shoe
Sabaton
Sailing boots
Skates
Ice skates
Inline skates
Roller skates
Ski boots
Snowshoes
Spats
Steel-toe boot
Surgical shoe
Pointe shoes
Swimfins (flippers)
Traditional footwear
Footwraps used by the Finnish Army until the 1990s
Abarka, of leather, from Pyrenees
Areni-1 shoe, 5,500-year-old leather shoe found in Armenia
Bast shoe, of bast, from Northern Europe
Crakow, shoes from Poland with long toes popular in the 15th century
Galesh, of textile, from Iran
Geta, of wood, from Japan
Klompen, of wood, from the Netherlands
Opanci, of leather, from Balkans
Pampooties, of hide, from Ireland
Socks
Socks
Toe socks
Tabi
Socks
Anklets
Bobby socks
Diabetic socks
Dress socks
Footwraps
Knee highs
Toe socks
Footwear industry
[icon]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding missing information. (August 2020)
In Europe, recent decades have seen a decline in the footwear industry. While about 27,000 firms were in business in 2005, only 21,700 remained in 2009. Not only have these firms decreased in number, but direct employment has also reduced within the sector.[48]
In the U.S., the annual footwear industry revenue was $48 billion in 2012. In 2015, there were about 29,000 shoe stores in the U.S. and the shoe industry employed about 189,000 people.[49] Due to rising imports, these numbers are also declining. The only way of staying afloat in the shoe market is to establish a presence in niche markets.[50]
Safety of footwear products
To ensure high quality and safety of footwear, manufacturers have to make sure all products comply to existing and relevant standards. By producing footwear in accordance with national and international regulations, potential risks can be minimized and the interest of both textile manufacturers and consumers can be protected. The following standards/regulations apply to footwear products:
CPSIA
GB Standards such as
GB20400－2006 Leather and fur-limit of harmful matter
QB/T1002-2005 Leather shoes
GB/T 15107 Athletic footwear
EN Standards for Footwear
ASTM Standards[51]
ISO standards[52]
AAFA Restricted Substance List
BIS (ISI) : IS 15298-I: 2011 test methods, IS 15298 –II for safety footwear, IS 15298-III Protective footwear, IS 15298-IV Occupational Footwear
Impressions
Footwear can create two types of impressions: two-dimensional and three-dimensional impressions.[53] When footwear places material onto a solid surface, it creates a two-dimensional impression.[53][54] These types of impressions can be made with a variety of substances, like dirt and sand.[53] When footwear removes material from a soft surface, it creates a three-dimensional impression.[53][54] These types of impressions can be made in a variety of soft substances, like snow and dirt.[53] Two-dimensional impressions also differ from three-dimensional impressions because the latter demonstrate length, width, and depth whereas two-dimensional impressions only demonstrate the first two aspects.[54]
See also
Fashion portal
American Apparel and Footwear Association – American trade association
American Podiatric Medical Association – US professional medical organization
Boot fetishism – Sexual fetish
Hiking boot – Sturdy footwear for outdoor activities
List of footwear designers
List of shoe styles
Orthopaedic footwear – Shoes designed to alleviate discomfort
Shoe fetishism – Erotic attraction to shoes
Shoe size – Measurement scale for footwear
Shoes – Footwear
References
Lazaro, Enrico de (2023-09-15). "Middle Paleolithic Tracks Offer Oldest Evidence Yet of Human Footwear | Sci.News". Sci.News: Breaking Science News. Retrieved 2025-08-09.
Lewis, Robert (2022), "Shoes", Official site, Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Redmond, Caroline (2025-02-20). "Mystery Of 10,600-Year-Old 'Spirit Cave Man,' Earth's Oldest Natural Mummy, Finally Solved". All That's Interesting. Retrieved 2025-08-09.
Connolly, Tom (11 January 2016), The World's Oldest Shoes, Eugene: University of Oregon.
"World's Oldest Shoes in Oregon...", The Seattle Times, Seattle, 1 December 1999.
Jones, Kirtly (7 January 2016), High Heels' Damage to the Human Foot, Salt Lake City: University of Utah, College of Health Care.
Mollerup, Per (30 September 2019), High Heels, MIT Press, pp. 76–77, ISBN 9780262351577 – via IEEE Xplore.
Purser, Louis Claude (1890), "Calceus", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London: William Wayte.
Nails, Debra; et al. (2022), "Socrates", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford: Stanford University.
"Unearthing the First Spartan Boys where not allowed to wear shoes to toughen their feet and allow stronger dexterity in their toes Olympics". NPR. July 19, 2004. Archived from the original on July 28, 2010. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
Golinkin, David (13 August 2020), "Is It Permissible to Pray Barefoot?", Official site, Tel Aviv: Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies.
Jastrow, Morris Jr.; et al. (1906), "Barefoot", Jewish Encyclopedia, New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
Bonfante, Larissa (1975), Etruscan Dress, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 61, ISBN 9780801874130.
DeMello, Margo (1 September 2009). Feet and footwear: a cultural encyclopedia. Macmillan. pp. 65–. ISBN 978-0-313-35714-5. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
Talbert, Richard John Alexander (1984), The Senate of Imperial Rome, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chin, Lily (1999), "Shoes", Millennium Web Package, San Jose: Knight Ridder/Tribune Information Services.
Meier, Gabriel (1908), "Sts. Crispin and Crispinian", The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4, New York: Robert Appleton Co..
"Dangerous Elegance: A History of High-Heeled Shoes". Retrieved July 1, 2010.
Ergil, Leyla Yvonne (11 August 2017), "Magic Slippers: Tales of the Turkish 'Terlik'", The Daily Sabah.
Goonetilleke, Ravindra (2012), The Science of Footwear (Human Factors and Ergonomics), CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-4398-3568-5.
Dangerous Elegance: A History of High-Heeled Shoes, retrieved 1 July 2010
Rétif, Nicolas-Edme (1769), Le Pied de Fanchette (in French).
Frazine, Richard Keith (1993). The Barefoot Hiker. Ten Speed Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-89815-525-8.
Bierle, Sarah Kay (7 April 2022), "On the March: A Few Notes on Shoes & Boots", Official site, Stevenson Ridge: Emerging Civil War.
Wolfe, Brendan (7 December 2020), "Shoes at Gettysburg", Encyclopedia Virginia, Charlottesville: Virginia Humanities.
Mulligan, William H. Jr. (March 1981), "Mechanization and Work in the American Shoe Industry: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1852–1883", The Journal of Economic History, vol. 41, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 59–63, JSTOR 2120894.
Federal Writer's Project of the Works Progress Administration for Massachusetts (1937), "Lynn", Massachusetts: A Guide to Its Places and People, American Guide Series, Cambridge: Riverside Press.
"How Massachusetts Became Shoemaker to the Country", Official site, Boston: Computer Images, 2016.
Dooley, William H. (1912), A Manual of Shoemaking and Leather and Rubber Products, Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., p. 253
"History of Shoemaking in Britain—Napoleonic Wars and the Industrial Revolution", Heart & Sole: Boot and Shoe Making in Staffordshire, Shugborough: Staffordshire County Museum, 9 December 2010, archived from the original on 2 February 2014, retrieved 1 July 2023.
Cutter, William Richard; et al. (2021), "John Brooks Nichols", Fiddlebase.
Lienhard, Jan H. (2000), "No. 522: Jan Matzeliger", Engines of Our Ingenuity, Houston: University of Houston.
Computer Images (2016).
Herwick, Edgar B. III (30 May 2014), "How Lynn Became the Shoe Capital of the World", Official site, Boston: WGBH.
Beevor, Antony (2012), The Second World War, London: Hachette, p. 91, ISBN 9780297860709.
Nolan, Cathal J. (2010), "Guomintang", The Concise Encyclopedia of World War II, vol. I, Santa Barbara: Greenwood, ISBN 9780313365270.
Camp, LaVonne Telshaw (1997), Lingering Fever: A World War II Nurse's Memoir, Jefferson: McFarland & Co., p. 41, ISBN 9780786403226.
Clothier & al. (2005), p. 6.
"History of Shoemaking in Britain—The 20th Century", Heart & Sole: Boot and Shoe Making in Staffordshire, Shugborough: Staffordshire County Museum, 9 December 2010, archived from the original on 19 February 2014, retrieved 3 July 2023.
Clothier & al. (2005), p. 11.
Clothier & al. (2005), p. 30.
Clothier, Anthony; et al. (21 September 2005), The Chinese Footwear Industry and Its Influence upon the World Trade (PDF), 15th Meeting of the UNIDO Leather Panel, Leo/n: United National Industrial Development Organization, p. 5.
"Footwear", Observatory of Economic Complexity, Cambridge: Datawheel, 2023.
Smith, P. (2022), "Leading 10 Global Footwear Exporters 2021 by Country", Official site, New York: Statista.
OEC (2023).
"The Fascinating History Of Footwear". All That Is Interesting. 2013-04-23. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
"What materials are used to make Nike shoes?". Reference. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
Directorate-General for Enterprise and Industry (European Commission) (2012). In-depth assessment of the situation of the European footwear sector and prospects for its future development (Report). NB-01-14-255-EN-N. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
"Footwear Industry Statistics". www.statisticbrain.com. Archived from the original on 20 May 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
"Shoe & Footwear Manufacturing in the US Market Research – IBISWorld". Retrieved 2 May 2015.
"Standard Specification for Performance Requirements for Protective (Safety) Toe Cap Footwear". Retrieved 5 July 2016.
"ISO – ISO Standards – ISO/TC 216 – Footwear". Retrieved 2 May 2015.
Gardner, Ross M. (30 June 2021). Practical crime scene processing and investigation. Taylor & Francis Limited. ISBN 978-1-032-09443-4. OCLC 1255870591.
Baxter Jr, E (2015). Complete Crime Scene Investigation Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 284–285.
Further reading
Goonetilleke, R.S. (2012). The Science of Footwear. Human Factors and Ergonomics. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-3568-5. 726 pages.
Wilcox, R.T. (2008). The Mode in Footwear: A Historical Survey with 53 Plates. Dover Fashion and Costumes Series. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-46761-0. 190 pages.
Riello, G. (2006). A Foot in the Past: Consumers, Producers and Footwear in the Long Eighteenth Century. Pasold studies in textile history. Pasold Research Fund/Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-929225-6. 302 pages.
External links
Wikimedia Commons logo Media related to Footwear at Wikimedia Commons
Encyclopædia Britannica: clothing and footwear industry
vte
Footwear
List of shoe stylesList of bootsShoeShoemakingShoe size
Dress shoes
BlucherBroguesBrothel creepersDerbyMonksOxfordsSpectator shoes (Co-respondent shoes)WinklepickersWholecuts
Slip-on shoes
Court shoesPrince Albert slippersLoafersVenetian-style shoes
Women's
Ballet flatsHigh-heeled footwearMary JanesMojariMulesPeep-toe shoesSaddle shoesSlingbacksT-bar sandals
Other shoes
Driving moccasinsFlip-flopsGaloshesJazz shoePlatform shoesSandalsSelf-tying shoesSlidesSlippers (Uwabaki)Tiger-head shoesVeldskoensZōri
Wooden footwear
BakyaBritish clogsCantabrian albarcasClogsGetaKlompenNamaksinOkoboPadukasPattensSabotTräskor
Boots
Military
AmmunitionBunnyCombatJackJumpJunglePataugaTankerTrench
Work
Australian workCowboyEngineerHipJika-tabiRiggerSteel-toeWaders
Fashion boots
Chelsea (Beatle)ChukkaGo-goKnee-highOver-the-kneePlatformThigh-highUgg
Other
Balmoral bootDerby BootJodhpurWellingtonBalletBean
Sport-related footwear
Ballet shoesBoat shoesClimbing shoesCross country running shoesCycling shoesFootball bootsGhilliesHiking bootsIce skatesInline skatesKung fu shoesMinimalist shoesMotorcycle bootsMountaineering bootsPlimsollsPointe shoesRacing flatsRacing shoesRiding bootsRoller shoesRoller skatesSabatonsSafari bootsSkate shoesSki bootsSneakersSwimfinsWater shoesWrestling shoes
Folk footwear
AbacasAbarkasAlpargatasAvarcasBalghasBast shoesCiocieClogsEspadrillesFurlaneGaleshGetaGivehHaferlschuhHnyat-phanatsHuaracheHwaJipsinJorabsKamiksKolhapuri chappalsMoccasinsMojarisMukluksNalinsOkoboOpanciPeshawari chappalsSnowshoesTsarouchiTakunyaUpanahValenkisWarajiZōri
Historical footwear
Areni-1 shoesBuskinsCalceiCaligaeCarbatinaCavalier bootsChinese stylesChopinesDuckbill shoesFlowerpot shoesHessiansLotus shoesPampootiesPigachesPoulainesSocciTurnshoes
Shoe construction
Bespoke shoesBlake constructionGoodyear weltShoe buckleShoelacesToe box
High heels
Clear heelsKitten heelsSpool heelsStiletto heelsWedges
Leather
LeatherCalfskinShell cordovanPatent leatherNubuckSuedeGoatskinExotic leather
Hosiery
AnkletsBobby socksDress socksFootwrapsKnee highsPantyhoseSockStockingTightsToe socksTabi
Related
Abandoned footwearSpats
vte
Clothing
HistoryIndustryTechnologyTerminologyTimeline
Headwear
Hats and
Headgear
List of hat stylesList of headgearList of fur headgearBeretCap BaseballFlatKnitCrownHat BoaterBowlerFedoraHomburgTop hatHelmet SportBicycleHoodKerchiefMaskTurbanVeil
Eyewear
EyeglassesSunglassesGogglesBlindfoldContactEyepatch
Neckwear
BandsChokerCollar ClericalLavallièreNeckerchiefNeck gaiterNecktie AscotBoloBowKipperSchoolStockScarfTippet
Underwear
and lingerie
Top
Bra DesignsCamisoleUndershirt
Bottom
DiaperTraining pantsLeggingsPantiesPlastic pantsSlipThongUnderpants Boxer briefsBoxer shortsBriefs
Full
BodysuitInfant bodysuitLong underwearSee-throughTeddy
Tops
Blouse Cache-cœurCrop topHalterneckTube topCyclingKurtaMantleShirt DressHenleyPoloSleevelessT-shirtCrew neckSweater CardiganGuernseyHoodieJerseyPolo neckShrugSweater vestTwinsetWaistcoat
Bottoms
Trousers
Bell-bottomsBondageCapriCargoChapsDhotiFormalGo-to-hellHigh waterLowriseJeansJodhpursLungiOverallsPalazzoParachutePedal pushersPhatShorts BermudacyclingdolphingymhotpantsrunningSarongSlim-fitSweatpantsVeshtiWindpantsYoga pants
Skirts
A-lineBallerinaDenimMen'sMiniskirtPencilPrairieRah-rahSarongSkortTutuWrap
Full-body
wear
Suits and
uniforms
Ceremonial dress academiccourtdiplomaticFolkJodhpuriJumpsuitMilitary fullmessservice sailorcombatMinerPantsuitPoliticalReligious CassocklericalVestmentSariSchoolPrisonWorkwear BoilersuitCleanroomHazmatSpaceScrubs
Dresses
and gowns
Formal, semi-
formal, informal
BacklessBouffant gownCoatdressCocktail Little blackEvening Ball gowndebutantePlainPrairiePrincess lineStraplessWeddingWrap
Casual
HouseJumperRomper suitSheathShirtdressSlipSundress
Coats
and
outerwear
Overcoats
BalmacaanCarChesterfieldCovertDuffelDusterGreatcoat British WarmGuards CoatGrecaPoint blanket coatOver-frockRiding shadbellyTrenchUlsterCloak operaPaletotPeaPoloRaincoat Mackintosh
Suit coats
Frock coat bekisherekelMess jacketSuit jacket BlazerSmokingSportTebaTailcoat DressMorning
Other
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the cryptographic concept, see Gardening (cryptanalysis). For people who garden, see Gardener.
A gardener maintaining topiary in Tulcán, Ecuador
Gardening is the process of growing plants for their vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs, or ornamental purposes within a designated space.[1] Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of aesthetically pleasing areas, medicines, cosmetics, dyes, foods, poisons, wildlife habitats, and saleable goods (see market gardening). People often partake in gardening for its therapeutic, health, educational, cultural, philosophical, environmental, and religious benefits.[2]
Home gardening is the practice of cultivating vegetables, fruits, herbs, and ornamental plants within residential spaces for personal use. It contributes to food security, biodiversity, environmental sustainability, and physical well-being.(more info)
Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San Francisco
Gardening varies in scale from the 800 hectare Versailles gardens[3] down to container gardens grown inside. Gardens take many forms; some only contain one type of plant, while others involve a complex assortment of plants with no particular order.
Gardening can be difficult to differentiate from farming. They are most easily differentiated based on their primary objectives. Farming prioritizes saleable goods and may include livestock production, whereas gardening often prioritizes aesthetics and leisure. As it pertains to food production, gardening generally happens on a much smaller scale with the intent of personal or community consumption.[4] There are cultures which do not differentiate between farming and gardening.[5] This is primarily because subsistence agriculture has been the main method of farming throughout its 12,000 year history and is virtually indistinguishable from gardening.[6][7]
Prehistory
Main article: Indigenous horticulture
Plant domestication is seen as the birth of agriculture. However, it is arguably preceded by a very long history of gardening wild plants. While the 12,000-year-old date is the commonly accepted timeline describing plant domestication, there is now evidence from the Ohalo II hunter-gatherer site showing earlier signs of disturbing the soil and cultivation of pre-domesticated crop species.[8] This evidence pushes early stage plant domestication to 23,000 years ago which aligns with research done by Allaby (2022) showing slight selection pressure of desirable traits in Southwest Asian cereals (einkorn, emmer, barley).[9] Despite not qualifying as plant domestication, many archaeological studies are pushing the potential date of hominin selective ecosystem disturbance back up to 125,000 years ago.[10] Much of these early recorded ecosystem disturbances were made through hominin use of fire, which dates back to 1.5 Mya (although at this time fire was not likely being wielded as a landscape-changing tool by hominids).[11] This anthropogenic ecosystem disturbance may be the origin of gardening.
Every hunter-gatherer society has developed a niche of some sort, allowing them to thrive or even just survive amongst their environments.[12] Many of these prehistoric hunter-gatherers had constructed a niche allowing for easier access to, or a higher amount of, edible plant species.[13] This shift from hunting and gathering to increasingly modifying the environment in a way which produces an abundance of edible plant species marks the beginning of gardening.[14] One of the most documented hominin niches is the use of off-site fire.[15] When done intentionally, this is often called forest gardening or fire stick farming in Australia.[16] The modern study of fire ecology describes the many benefits that off-site fires may have granted these early humans.[17] Some of these agroecological practices have been well documented and studied during colonial contact. However, they are vastly under represented in research done on early hominin fire use.[18] Based on current research, it is evident that these niches developed separately in different societies across different times and locations.[19] Many of the Indigenous gardening methods were and still are often overlooked by colonizers due to the lack of resemblance to western gardens with well-defined borders and non-naturalized plant species.[20]
The Americas
There are long traditions of gardening within Indigenous societies spanning from the northernmost parts of Canada down to the southernmost tip of Chile and Argentina.[21][18][22][23] The Arctic and Subarctic societies relied primarily on hunting and fishing due to the harsh climate, although they have been known to collectively use at least 311 different plants as foods or medicines.[24] The substantial knowledge and use of these plants along with the communal harvesting sites and emphasis on reciprocity between humans and plants indicates a basic level of gardening.[25][26][27] Similarly, the Fuegian Indigenous groups in South America had developed seemingly comparable niches due to a similar tundra ecosystem. While there are very few studies on the Fuegians, Darwin mentioned wild edible plants such as fungi, kelp, and wild celery growing next to the various Fuegian shelters.[28][29][30]
From the Drake manuscript, this is a drawing done by an anonymous Frenchman in the 16th century. It shows an Indigenous garden planted with papaya, pineapple, maize, beans, and cucurbits.
Horticulture plays a relatively small role in these northern and southern tundra inhabitants compared with Indigenous societies in grassland and forest ecosystems. From the boreal forests of Canada to the temperate forests and grasslands of Chile and Argentina, different communities have developed food production niches. These include the use of fire for ecosystem maintenance and resetting successional sequences, the sowing of wild annuals, the sowing of domesticated annuals (e.g. three sisters, New World crops), creating berry patches and orchards, manipulation of plants to encourage desired traits(e.g. increased nut, fruit, or root production), and landscape modification to encourage plant and animal growth (e.g. complex irrigation, sea gardens, or terraces).[14][31][32] These modified landscapes as recorded by early American philosophers such as Thoreau, and Emmerson were described as exhibiting pristine beauty.[33][34] Indigenous gardens such as forest gardens therefore do not only serve as a producer of foods, medicines, or materials, but also pleasant aesthetics.[35]
Many popular crops originate from pre-colonial Indigenous agricultural societies. Some of these include maize, quinoa, common bean, peanut, pumpkin, squash, pepper, tomato, cassava, potato, blueberry, cactus pear, cashew, papaya, pineapple, strawberry, cacao, sunflower, cotton, Pará rubber, and tobacco.[36]
History
Main article: History of gardening
Robert Hart's forest garden in Shropshire, England
Ancient times
Forest gardening, a forest-based food production system, is the world's oldest form of gardening.[37]
After the emergence of the first civilizations, wealthy individuals began to create gardens for aesthetic purposes. Ancient Egyptian tomb paintings from the New Kingdom (around 1500 BC) provide some of the earliest physical evidence of ornamental horticulture and landscape design; they depict lotus ponds surrounded by symmetrical rows of acacias and palms. A notable example of ancient ornamental gardens was the Hanging Gardens of Babylon—one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World —while ancient Rome had dozens of gardens.
Wealthy ancient Egyptians used gardens to provide shade. Egyptians associated trees and gardens with gods, believing that their deities were pleased by gardens. Gardens in ancient Egypt were often surrounded by walls with trees planted in rows. Among the most popular species planted were date palms, sycamores, fig trees, nut trees, and willows. These gardens were a sign of higher socioeconomic status. In addition, wealthy ancient Egyptians grew vineyards, as wine was a sign of the higher social classes. Roses, poppies, daisies and irises could all also be found in the gardens of the Egyptians.
Assyria was renowned for its beautiful gardens. These tended to be wide and large, some of them used for hunting game, rather like a game reserve today, and others as leisure gardens. Cypresses and palms were some of the most frequently planted types of trees.
Gardens were also available in Kush. In Musawwarat es-Sufra, the Great Enclosure, dated to the 3rd century BC, included splendid gardens.[38]
Ancient Roman gardens were laid out with hedges and vines and contained a wide variety of flowers—acanthus, cornflowers, crocus, cyclamen, hyacinth, iris, ivy, lavender, lilies, myrtle, narcissus, poppy, rosemary and violets[39]—as well as statues and sculptures. Flower beds were popular in the courtyards of rich Romans.
The Middle Ages
A gardener at work, 1607
The Middle Ages represent a period of decline in gardens for aesthetic purposes. After the fall of Rome, gardening was done for the purpose of growing medicinal herbs and/or decorating church altars. Monasteries carried on a tradition of garden design and intense horticultural techniques during the medieval period in Europe. Generally, monastic garden types consisted of kitchen gardens, infirmary gardens, cemetery orchards, cloister garths and vineyards. Individual monasteries might also have had a "green court", a plot of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a cellarer's garden or private gardens for obedientiaries, monks who held specific posts within the monastery.
Islamic gardens were built after the model of Persian gardens, and they were usually enclosed by walls and divided into four by watercourses. Commonly, the centre of the garden would have a reflecting pool or pavilion. Specific to the Islamic gardens are the mosaics and glazed tiles used to decorate the rills and fountains that were built in these gardens.
By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and medicinal herbs and vegetables.[39] They surrounded the gardens by walls to protect them from animals and to provide seclusion.[40] During the next two centuries, Europeans started planting lawns and raising flowerbeds and trellises of roses. Fruit trees were common in these gardens, and also in some, there were turf seats. At the same time, the gardens in the monasteries were a place to grow flowers and medicinal herbs, but they were also a space where the monks could enjoy nature and relax.
The gardens in the 16th and 17th centuries were symmetric, proportioned and balanced with a more classical appearance. Most of these gardens were built around a central axis, and they were divided into different parts by hedges. Commonly, gardens had flowerbeds laid out in squares and separated by gravel paths.
Gardens during the Renaissance were adorned with sculptures, topiary and fountains. In the 17th century, knot gardens became popular along with the hedge mazes. By this time, Europeans started planting new flowers such as tulips, marigolds and sunflowers.
Cottage gardens
A cottage garden in Brittany
Cottage gardens, which emerged in Elizabethan times, appear to have originated as a local source for herbs and fruits.[41] One theory is that they arose out of the Black Death of the 1340s, when the death of so many laborers made land available for small cottages with personal gardens.[42] According to the late 19th-century legend of origin,[43] These gardens were originally created by the workers who lived in the cottages of the villages to provide them with food and herbs, with flowers planted among them for decoration. Farm workers were provided with cottages that had architectural quality set in a small garden—about 1 acre (0.40 hectares)—where they could grow food and keep pigs and chickens.[44]
Authentic gardens of the yeoman cottager would have included a beehive and livestock, and frequently a pig and sty, along with a well. The peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers, with herbs grown for medicinal use rather than for their beauty. By Elizabethan times, there was more prosperity, and thus more room to grow flowers. Even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use—violets were spread on the floor (for their pleasant scent and keeping out vermin); calendulas and primroses were both attractive and used in cooking. Others, such as sweet William and hollyhocks, were grown entirely for their beauty.[45]
18th century
Sheffield Park Garden, a landscape garden originally laid out in the 18th century by Capability Brown
In the 18th century, gardens were laid out more naturally, without any walls. This style of smooth, undulating grass, which would run straight to the house, clumps, belts and scattering of trees and serpentine lakes formed by invisibly damming small rivers, was a new style within the English landscape. This was a "gardenless" form of landscape gardening, which swept away almost all the remnants of previous, formally patterned styles. The English landscape garden usually included a lake, lawns set against groves of trees, and often contained shrubberies, grottoes, pavilions, bridges and follies such as mock temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. This new style emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical garden à la française of the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe.[46] The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. They were often inspired by paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin, and some were Influenced by the classic Chinese gardens of the East,[47] which had recently been described by European travelers.[47] The work of Lancelot 'Capability' Brown was particularly influential. Also, in 1804, the Horticultural Society was formed.
Gardens of the 19th century contained plants such as the monkey puzzle or Chile pine. This is also the time when the so-called "gardenesque" style of gardens evolved. These gardens displayed a wide variety of flowers in a rather small space. Rock gardens increased in popularity in the 19th century.
In ancient India, patterns from sacred geometry and mandalas were used to design gardens. Distinct mandala patterns denoted specific deities, planets, or even constellations. Such a garden was also referred to as a 'Mandala Vaatika'. The word 'Vaatika' can mean garden, plantation or parterre.
Types
Main article: List of garden types
Residential gardening takes place near the home, in a space referred to as the garden. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located on a roof, in an atrium, on a balcony, in a window box, on a patio or vivarium.
Conservatory of Flowers in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco
Hanging baskets in Thornbury, South Gloucestershire
Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens (botanical gardens or zoological gardens), amusement parks, along transportation corridors, and around tourist attractions and garden hotels. In these situations, a staff of gardeners or groundskeepers maintains the gardens.
An organic garden on a school campus
Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of houseplants within a residence or building, in a conservatory, or in a greenhouse. Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of air conditioning or heating systems. Indoor gardening extends the growing season in the fall and spring and can be used for winter gardening.
Native plant gardening is concerned with the use of native plants with or without the intent of creating wildlife habitat. The goal is to create a garden in harmony with, and adapted to a given area. This type of gardening typically reduces water usage, maintenance, and fertilization costs, while increasing native faunal interest.
Water gardening is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. Bog gardens are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s). In aquascaping, a garden is created within an aquarium tank.
Container gardening is concerned with growing plants in any type of container, either indoors or outdoors. Common containers are pots, hanging baskets, and planters. Container gardening is usually used in atriums and on balconies, patios, and rooftops.
Hügelkultur is concerned with growing plants on piles of rotting wood, as a form of raised bed gardening and composting in situ.[48] An English loanword from German, it means "mound garden". Toby Hemenway, noted permaculture author and teacher, considers wood buried in trenches to also be a form of hugelkultur referred to as a dead wood swale.[49] Hugelkultur is practiced by Sepp Holzer as a method of forest gardening and agroforestry, and by Geoff Lawton as a method of dryland farming and desert greening.[50] When used as a method of disposing of large volumes of waste wood and woody debris, hugelkultur accomplishes carbon sequestration.[48] It is also a form of xeriscaping.
Community gardening is a social activity in which an area of land is gardened by a group of people, providing access to fresh produce, herbs, flowers and plants as well as access to satisfying labor, neighborhood improvement, sense of community and connection to the environment.[51][52] Community gardens are typically owned in trust by local governments or nonprofits.[53]
Garden sharing partners landowners with gardeners in need of land. These shared gardens, typically front or back yards, are usually used to produce food that is divided between the two parties.
Organic gardening uses natural, sustainable methods, fertilizers and pesticides to grow non-genetically modified crops.
Biodynamic gardening or biodynamic agriculture is similar to organic gardening, but includes various esoteric concepts drawn from the ideas of Rudolf Steiner, such as astrological sowing and planting calendar and particular field and compost preparations.
Commercial gardening is a more intensive type of gardening that involves the production of vegetables, non-tropical fruits, and flowers by local farmers. Commercial gardening began because farmers would sell locally to stop food from spoiling faster due to the transportation of goods from a far distance. Mediterranean agriculture is also a common practice that commercial gardeners use. Mediterranean agriculture is the practice of cultivating animals such as sheep to help weed and provide manure for vine crops, grains, or citrus. Gardeners can easily train these animals not to eat the actual plant.[54]
No-dig gardening (or no-till gardening) is a method of gardening that avoids tillage as much as possible. This method of gardening is gaining popularity in part due to celebrated figures such as Charles Dowding, Masanobu Fukuoka, Jean-Martin Fortier, Connor Crickmore, Jesse Frost, Elaine Ingham, and many other market gardeners. Minimal tillage has been documented to help with promoting diverse soil biology, water retention and drainage, healthier vigorous plants, reduction in weed pressure, reduction in labor, increased fertility and nutrient availability, increase carbon sequestration, reduction in cost, reduction in soil erosion, and reduction in pollution.[55][56][57][58]
Tools
Regardless of historical time period, location, scale, or type of garden, all gardening requires some basic tools.[59] For the majority of human history, people have managed with significantly fewer resources compared to modern times. Agriculture was built on the use of hands, stones, sticks, human ingenuity, and fire.[60] The essential tools used in pre-Bronze Age gardening were non-metal (primarily stone, bone, wood, or copper) knives, axes, adzes, foot ploughs, sickles, hoes, baskets, pottery, digging sticks, animal-driven ploughs, animals, and fire for clearing land.[8][61][62][63] Up until the green revolution, these simple tools, although continually improved upon, would continue to be the backbone of agricultural societies.[64]
Harrowing a field on the Canterbury Agricultural College farm in 1948.
The industrial revolution created a large increase in the availability and impact of agricultural tools. These tools include tractors with modern implements, manure spreaders, cultivators, mowers, earth-moving machines, hedge trimmers, strimmer's, wood-chippers, two-wheel tractors, complex irrigation systems, plastic mulch, plastic shelters, seeding trays, indoor grow lights, packaging, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, genetically modified seeds, and many more.
Vegetable Gardening
Vegetable garden typically emphasizes small-scale, low-cost methods that help new gardeners develop basic skills before expanding. Most introductory approaches recommend starting with a limited garden area, often around 10×10 feet, to make planting, watering, and maintenance manageable. Location is considered essential; most commonly grown vegetables require 6–8 hours of sunlight per day, while leafy greens can tolerate partial shade.
Many beginner guides encourage choosing easy, fast-growing crops such as lettuce, radishes, green beans, zucchini, tomatoes, and garlic. These vegetables generally adapt well to a wide range of climates and soil conditions, making them suitable for new gardeners. Soil preparation is a major focus, with loose, well-draining soil enriched with compost or organic matter considered key to successful harvests.
Planting methods vary: some vegetables are direct-sown (planted as seeds straight into the garden soil), while others, such as tomatoes and peppers, are commonly started as seedlings. Consistent watering, preferably in the morning, and the use of mulch to conserve moisture are widely recommended practices. New gardeners are also encouraged to monitor soil moisture levels rather than relying on a fixed schedule.
Common beginner-friendly cultivation systems include in-ground beds, raised beds, and container gardening. Raised beds are often highlighted for their improved drainage and simplified soil management, especially in urban or small-space settings. Early pest management strategies typically emphasize non-chemical options such as hand-removal of insects, row covers, and companion planting.
Frequent challenges for new vegetable gardeners include overwatering, overcrowding, and insufficient soil preparation. Many educational sources recommend keeping seasonal notes to help gardeners learn how local climate, sunlight, and soil behavior affect plant growth over time.[65]
Plant propagation
Plants may be propagated through many different methods. These methods are classified as either sexual or asexual propagation.[66]
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction occurs when plants produce clonal offspring. This method of reproduction is often more simplistic and provides rapid population growth. Cloning may result in highly vulnerable plant populations if they do not also reproduce sexually in order to create genetic diversity, thus allowing for certain levels of natural selection and hybrid vigor.[67] There are various methods of asexual plant propagation taken advantage of by gardeners. These include vegetative propagation, which involves the growth of new plants from vegetative parts of the parent plant, such as roots, stems, and leaves.[68] Certain plants such as strawberries and raspberries produce stolons or rhizomes which are stems which grow horizontally above or below ground, developing new plants at nodes. Another common method of asexual reproduction in garden plants is fragmentation which involves a separation from the parent plant.[69] This is common for shrubs, and trees such as willows which may shed their branches which is termed cladoptosis. Placing the shed limb into water or soil produces budding and causes roots to form.[70]
Stolons growing from nodes from a corm of Crocosmia
Perhaps the most commonly known method of asexual reproduction in gardening and farming is grafting. A human may choose to graft an excellent fruit-producing cultivar on a selected rootstock cultivar of the same species.[71] This involves cutting each plant and connecting the cuttings by mechanical means until they inosculate or fuse together. Grafting is done for many purposes. Firstly, the scion (portion of the plant above the graft site) can undergo artificial selection for specific desirable traits such as flavor while the rootstock can undergo selection for traits such as disease resistance or cold tolerance.[72] This effectively allows for much more efficiency in the artificial selection process as certain traits such as fruit taste can be ignored altogether in the rootstock allowing for a focused selection with less backcrossing to a plant that had good tasting fruit. Secondly, grafting allows for plants that require cross-pollination for fruit generation, such as apples, to all grow together as one tree.[73] Thirdly, this allows for quick reproduction where one mother plant can produce many semi-developed clones each year.[74][75]
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction occurs through the pollination of an ovule. This pollination must occur between the female and male parts of a single flower or between flowers. A plant may undergo self pollination as a sexual means of reproduction, where the genes of the mother plant will not perfectly match those of the progeny. Progeny from self-pollination will, however, have less genetic diversity which may result in inbreeding depression versus plants from cross-pollination.[76] Pollen is typically carried by wind, insects, or animals to complete pollination. Some greenhouses may have to manually pollinate their plants to produce fruit and seeds due to a lack of these conditions. Sexual reproduction can only be done by members of the same species and this produces varying levels of genetic diversity in the plants' offspring. This genetic diversity is responsible for the survival of every plant as we know it today.[77] The diversity allows for disease resistance, adaptations to changing climate, changes in soil, changes in pollination methods, changes in animal grazing pressure, changes in weed pressure, and any other variations that arise in their growing conditions. Crossing plants, or hybridizing, results in hybrid vigor and increases the genetic diversity.[78]
Time course imaging of two maize inbreds (LH198 and PHG47) and the F1 hybrid (LH198/PHG47) generated by crossing the two together
Many commercially grown plants are F1 hybrids, which ensures certain desirable traits. A common alternative to growing hybrid plants is to grow heirloom or open-pollinated plants, which, unlike F1 hybrids, will produce viable seed with progeny similar to its parent.[79] Many modern gardeners will save seeds from heirloom varieties but not hybrids due to the certainty of desirable traits heirloom seeds provide. Historically, a lack of plant breeding knowledge would have led to more hybridization and the creation of new genetically diverse landraces.[80] Each plant varies in its likelihood of outcrossing.[81] Highly outcrossing plants such as spinach are more likely to create landraces.[82][83] Many landraces and heirloom varieties along with their genetics are being lost due to the decrease in seed saving by modern farmers.[84] This leads plant geneticists to search for desirable genetics in wild ancestral varieties of commonly grown plants.[85] Plants have been artificially selected and bred since at least 7800 BCE.[86] Despite the decrease in farmer seed saving, many landraces are also being created through artificial selection and genetic modification.[87] Gardeners remain vital in the preservation of diverse genetics whether they maintain a family heirloom variety bred to fit conditions from the distant past, or they breed new landraces with traits matching their modern climate and growing condition.[88]
Certain seeds may not sprout without certain environmental conditions. These seeds either require scarification or stratification.[89] Gardeners may grow frustrated if they lack this crucial knowledge before attempting to propagate certain plants such as hard neck garlic (asexual reproduction), which requires a cold dormant period to sprout, or saskatoon berries which have improved germination after being digested by bears through a process called endozoochory.[90]
Transplanting
Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) grafted seedlings ready for transplanting in Ceará, Brazil
Many gardeners, especially those who live in colder climates, will start seeds indoors prior to transplanting the young plants outside.[91] This provides many benefits such as elongating the growing season, ensuring adequate quantities and quality of light, ensuring seedlings have adequate nutrients in the seed starting mix, ensuring seeds stay at correct humidity, heat, and moisture level for germination, and saving space in the garden.[92][93] Many crops will not be harvestable unless they are started inside so if a gardener wants to plant these crops in their garden without starting the plants themselves, they will need to purchase transplants which are commonly available at garden centers, plant nurseries, and big-box stores. It is crucial that transplanting is done correctly. This generally implies providing the plants with enough soil so they do not become root-bound (roots wrapping in circles around transplant container), providing a hardening-off period (slow exposure to sun, wind, and cold), providing sufficient light, water, and nutrients, and choosing the correct plants to start indoors as some plants do not do well with the transplanting process.[94]
There are varying methods of starting your seeds. The most prevalent method would be to start seeds in transplant (plug) trays or in planters/pots. Another method is starting seeds in soil blocks (small cubes of compressed potting soil, compost, and/or other seed-starting media), which may reduce transplant shock and stop root-binding because they allow air pruning of the roots.[95] Some plants such as onions and various herbs may be efficiently started by scattering their seeds on top of soil in a large tray where the seedlings will later be teased apart from each other and replanted in the garden or pots.[96]
Pests
Garden pests are generally plants, fungi, or animals (frequently insects) that engage in activity that the gardener considers undesirable. A pest may crowd out desirable plants, disturb soil, stunt the growth of young seedlings, steal or damage fruit, or otherwise kill plants, hamper their growth, damage their appearance, or reduce the quality of the edible or ornamental portions of the plant. Aphids, spider mites, slugs, snails, ants, birds, and even cats are commonly considered to be garden pests.
Throughout history, ecosystems that have undergone rapid changes are typically those that harbor the most pests.[97] For example, a highly and rapidly altered landscape such as modern canola fields in the Americas can be a breeding ground for pests of the Brassicaceae family.[98] A natural ecosystem will typically regulate pest levels through many biological means whether that be the natural introduction of a disease or an increase in the population of a predator species of animal.[99]
The flame flower (Tropaeolum speciosum), climbs over other plants to a sunlit position
Because gardeners may have different goals, organisms considered "garden pests" vary from gardener to gardener. Tropaeolum speciosum, for example, may be considered a desirable and ornamental garden plant, or it may be considered a pest if its seeds and starts to grow where it is not wanted. As another example, in lawns, moss can become dominant and be impossible to eradicate. In some lawns, lichens, especially very damp lawn lichens such as Peltigera lactucfolia and P. membranacea, can become difficult to control and are considered pests.
Pest control
There are many ways by which unwanted pests are removed from a garden. The techniques vary depending on the pest, the gardener's goals, and the gardener's philosophy. For example, snails may be dealt with through the use of a chemical pesticide, an organic pesticide, hand-picking, barriers, or simply growing snail-resistant plants.
On a large scale, pest control is often done through the use of pesticides and herbicides, which may be either organic or artificially synthesized. Pesticides may affect the ecology of a garden due to their effects on the populations of both target and non-target species. For example, unintended exposure to some neonicotinoid pesticides has been proposed as a factor in the recent decline in honey bee populations.[100] Pesticides and herbicides are also known to cause medical issues, typically to those in proximity during their application.[101] While farm workers are by far the most affected by the use of pesticides and herbicides, they are often under-informed or accept the consequences due to financial necessity.[102] Fungicides may be applied to the seed coat to reduce mortality of germinating seedlings.[103] The improper use of pesticides often leads to pesticide resistance which poses a risk in global food security.[104] With climate change affecting the distribution of pests, a global increase in pesticide usage has been observed which in turn has caused an increase of human health risks due to exposure.[105] Creating new pesticides in order to manage resistant organisms is an immense expense and is often heavily criticized as an ineffective method of pest control.[106]
Crop under row cover to protect plants from pest damage.
Other means of control include the removal of infected plants, using fertilizers and bio stimulants to improve the health and vigor of plants so they better resist attack, practicing crop rotation to prevent pest build-up, using foliar sprays, companion planting, and practicing good garden hygiene, such as disinfecting tools and clearing debris and weeds which may harbor pests.[107] Another common method of pest control, used frequently in market gardening, is using insect netting or plastic greenhouse covers.[108] Gardeners may rely on one type of pest in order to eliminate another. Some examples of this are cats which hunt mice and rats, wild birds, bats, chickens, and ducks which hunt insects and slugs, or thorny hedges to deter deer and other creatures. Using these organisms to help control pests is called biological pest control. There are also targeted measures of animal pest control, such as a mole vibrator, which can deter mole activity in a garden, or automated gun shots to scare off birds.[109]
CCI .22LR snake shot loaded with #12 shot
Garden guns
Main article: Garden gun
Garden guns are smooth-bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards (14 to 18 m) and are relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly, injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, and stockyards.[110]
Social aspects
People can express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The lawn vs. garden issue is played out in urban planning as the debate over the "land ethic" that is to determine urban land use and whether hyper hygienist bylaws (e.g. weed control) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous Canadian Charter of Rights case, "Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto",[111] 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the right of free expression.
Community gardening comprises a wide variety of approaches to sharing land and gardens.
Garden at the Schultenhof in Mettingen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
People often surround their house and garden with a hedge. Common hedge plants are privet, hawthorn, beech, yew, leyland cypress, hemlock, arborvitae, barberry, box, holly, oleander, forsythia, and lavender. The Slow Food movement has sought in some countries to add an edible school yard and garden classrooms to schools, e.g. in Fergus, Ontario, where these were added to a public school to augment the kitchen classroom.[112] Garden sharing, where urban landowners allow gardeners to grow on their property in exchange for a share of the harvest, is associated with the desire to control the quality of one's food, and reconnect with soil and community.[113]
In US and British usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is called landscaping, landscape maintenance, or grounds keeping, while international usage uses the term gardening for these same activities.
Also gaining popularity is the concept of "Green Gardening"[114] which involves growing plants using organic fertilizers and pesticides so that the gardening process – or the flowers and fruits produced thereby – doesn't adversely affect the environment or people's health in any manner.
Gardening can be a very pleasant and relaxing activity with rewarding results.[115] It allows for a connection with nature and creating a green space that presents a vision of beauty but also contributes to the eco system.[116] A thriving and flourishing garden can be created by understanding and adapting to the climate and environmental changes.
Plants and flowers grow in varying temperatures and weather conditions. Most plants thrive in temperatures between 18 and 24 °C during the day and slightly cooler at night.[117] This range allows for optimal photosynthesis and overall growth for many common plant species. Usually, there is a variety of plants in a garden, therefore, it is always best to learn about the best weather for your plants to have success with your planting.
Laws and restrictions
In some parts of the world, particularly the United States, gardening can be restricted by law or by rules and regulations imposed by a Homeowners Association.[118] In the United States, such rules may prohibit homeowners from growing vegetable gardens, prohibit xeriscaping or meadow gardens, or require garden plants to be chosen from a pre-approved list, to preserve the aesthetics of the neighborhood.[119][120][121] Numerous challenges to these laws, ordinances and regulations have emerged in recent years, with some resulting in legislation protecting a homeowner's right to cultivate native plants or grow vegetables.[122][123] Laws protecting a homeowner's right to grow food plants have been termed "right to garden" laws.
Waste management
Yard waste includes leaves, brush, grass clippings, and other organic materials. It can be chipped into a mulch or made into a finished compost that can be sold.[124]
Benefits
Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity. There are also many studies about the positive effects on mental and physical health in relation to gardening.[125] Specifically, gardening is thought to increase self-esteem and reduce stress.[126] As writer and former teacher Sarah Biddle notes, one's garden may become a "tiny oasis to relax and recharge [one's] batteries."[127] Involving in gardening activities aids in creativity, observational skills, learning, planning and physical movement.[128]
Others consider gardening to be a good hedge against supply chain disruptions, with increased worries that the public cannot always trust that the grocery store shelves will be fully stocked.[129] In April 2022, about 31% of grocery products were out of stock which is an 11% increase from November 2021.[130]
Gardening can also support good numbers and a wide range of pollinators, but worryingly bees and other pollinators are in decline. Gardeners can make a difference to help reverse this trend.[131] The main thing that matters is that they get their share of nectar to fuel their busy lifestyles,[132] and this is where gardening can help them.
A way to both positively impact humans and pollinators is to implement pollinator gardens. Including native flowers has been shown to increase pollinators, and even protects bee populations against urbanization and landscapes that do not include flowers.[133] Small patches in urban landscapes that are diverse in flowers have been noted to match or even exceed wild landscapes when it comes to bees pollinating.[134] Areas like golf courses, cemeteries, community gardens as well as residential gardens are all areas in urban settings that could benefit pollinator diversity by implementing native flowers to the landscape.[135]
Ornaments and accessories
Main article: Garden ornament
A classical urn at Palm House, the Belfast Botanic Gardens, Northern Ireland, as garden ornament
There is a wide range of garden ornaments and accessories available in the market for both the professional gardener and the amateur to exercise their creativity, for example, sculptures, lights or fountains. These are used to add decoration or functionality, and may be made from a wide range of materials such as copper, stone, wood, bamboo, stainless steel, clay, stained glass, concrete, or iron. Examples include trellis, garden furniture, gnomes, statues, outdoor fireplaces, fountains, rain chains, urns, bird baths and feeders, wind chimes, and garden lighting such as candle lanterns and oil lamps. The use of these items can be part of the expression of a gardener's gardening personality.
As art
See also: Landscape architecture and Jupiter Artland
Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally means garden maintenance. Garden design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife, Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens.
In Japan, Samurai and Zen monks were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like flower arrangement known as ikebana. In 18th-century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, England. Today, landscape architects and garden designers continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces. In the US, professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers.[136]
See also
Arboretum
Bonsai
Cultigen
Eyecatchers
Garden writing
Growbag
Introduced species
Impact gardening
List of garden tools
List of gardening topics
List of horticulture and gardening books
List of professional gardeners
Master gardener program
No-dig gardening
Portals:
icon Gardening
grain Agriculture
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