Authenticity Guaranteed! The Chi Rho is one of the earliest
christograms
used by Christians. It is formed by superimposing the
first two letters in the Greek spelling of the word
Christ
(
Greek
: "Χριστός" ), chi = ch and rho = r, in such a way to produce
the monogram
☧. The Chi-Rho symbol was also used by pagan Greek scribes to
mark, in the margin,  a particularly valuable or relevant passage; the
combined
letters Chi and Rho standing for chrēston, meaning "good." Although not technically a cross, the Chi Rho invokes the crucifixion
of Jesus as well as symbolizing his status as the Christ. There is early
evidence of the Chi Rho symbol on Christian Rings of the third century.
Aelia Eudoxia (died
6
October
404
)
was the Empress consort of the
Eastern Roman
emperor
Arcadius
. Family
She was a daughter of
Flavius Bauto
, a
Romanised
Frank
who served as
magister militum
in the Western Roman army during the 380s. The identity
of her father is mentioned by
Philostorgius
.
The fragmentary chronicle of John of Antioch, a 7th century monk tentatively
identified with
John of the Sedre
,
Syrian Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch
from 641 to 648
considers Bauto to have also fathered
Arbogast
. The relation is not accepted by modern historians.
The History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the
Death of Justinian (1923) by
J. B. Bury
and the historical study Theodosian Empresses. Women and Imperial Dominion in
Late Antiquity (1982) by Kenneth Holum consider her mother to be
Roman
and Eudoxia to be a "semibarbara", half-barbarian.
However the primary sources are silent on her maternal ancestry.
Early
life
Her father was last mentioned as
Roman Consul
with Arcadius in 385. He was already deceased in 388.
[5]
According to Zosimus
, Eudoxia entered started her life in
Constantinople
as a household member of
Promotus
, magister militum of the Eastern Roman Empire. She is presumed to
have been orphaned at the time of her arrival
[1]
Her entry into the household of Promotus may indicate a friendship
of the two magisters
[6]
or a political alliance.[1]
Promotus died in 391. According to Zosimus, he was survived
by his widow Marsa and two sons who were raised alongside the sons and
co-emperors of
Theodosius I
. Said sons were Arcadius and his younger brother
Honorius
. Zosimus asserts that Eudoxia lived alongside one of the surviving
sons in Constantinople. She is therefore assumed to have already been acquainted
with Arcadius during his years as junior partner to his father. Zosimus reports
that Eudoxia was educated by Pansophius. Her former tutor was promoted to bishop
of Nicomedia
in 402. Wendy Mayer considers Eudoxia to have been groomed as a vehicle for the
ambitions of her foster family.
[1]
Marriage
On
17 January
395,
Theodosius I succumbed to death by
oedema
in Milan
.
Arcadius succeeded him in the Eastern Roman Empire and Honorius in the
Western Roman Empire
. Arcadius was effectively placed under the control of
Rufinus
,
Praetorian prefect
of the East. Rufinus reportedly intended to marry his
daughter to Arcadius and establish his own relation to the
Theodosian dynasty
.
[1]
Bury considers that "once the Emperor's father-in‑law he [Rufinus]
might hope to become an Emperor himself."
[4]
However Rufinus was distracted by a conflict with
Stilicho
,
magister militum of the West. The wedding of Eudoxia to Arcadius was
orchestrated by
Eutropius
, one of the
eunuch
officials serving in the
Great Palace of Constantinople
. The marriage took place on 27 April 395,
without the knowledge or consent of Rufinus.
[1]
[4]
For Eutropius it was an attempt to increase his own influence over the emperor
and hopefully ensure the loyalty of the new empress to himself. Rufinus had been
an enemy of Promotus and the surviving household of the magister militum,
inncluding Eudoxia, might have been eager to undermine him.
[1]
Arcadius himself may have been motivated in asserting his own will
over that of his regent.
[7]
Zosimus reports that Arcadius was also influenced by the extraordinary beauty of
his bride but this considered doubtful by later scholars.
[1]
Arcadius was approximately eighteen years old and Eudoxia may be
presumed to be of an equivalent age.
Empress
consort
In the decade between her marriage and her death, Eudoxia
gave birth to five surviving children. A contemporary source known as pseudo-Martyrius
also reports two
stillbirths
.
The writer is considered to be Cosmas, supporter of
John Chrysostom
who attributed both events to punishment for the two exiles
of John. Zosimus alleges that her son Theodosius was widely rumored to be the
result of her affair with a courtier. Zosimus' account of her life is generally
hostile to Eudoxia and the accuracy of his tale is doubtful.
[1]
She and
Gainas
, the new
magister militum, are considered to have played a part in the stripping of all
offices and subsequent execution of Eutropius in 399. However the extent and
nature of her involvement are disputed. Nevertheless, she seems to have
increased her personal influence following his demise. On
9 January
400, Eudoxia
was officially given the title of an
Augusta
. She was then able to wear the purple
paludamentum
representing imperial rank and was depicted in
Roman currency
Official images of her in the manner similar to a male
Augustus also went in circulation. Her brother-in-law Honorius would later
complain to Arcadius about them reaching his own court.
[1]
The extent of her influence at matters of court and state has
been a matter of debate among historians. Philostorgius considers her to be more
intelligent than her husband but comments on her "barbarian arrogance". Zosimus
considers her strong-willed but ultimately manipulated by eunuchs at court and
the women of her environment. Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church, and State
in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom (1990) by J. W. H. G. Liebeschuetz
considers her influence overestimated in primary sources while The Cambridge
Ancient History XIII. The Late Empire A.D. 337-425 (1998) reports her
dominating the government between 400 and her death in 404.
[1]
In 403, Simplicius,
Prefect
of
Constantinople
, erected a statue dedicated to her on a column of
porphyry
and a base of
marble
.
Arcadius renamed the town of
Selymbria
(Silivri)
Eudoxiopolis after her, though this name did not survive.[1]
Church
policy
Her role in the ecclesiastical affairs of her time is
relatively well-recorded. She became a patron to the faction of the Christian
Church accepting the
Nicene
Creed
and she is reported by
Socrates of Constantinople
to be financing nighttime anti-Arian
processions in Constantinople. She also presided in public celebrations over the
arrival of new relics
of
Christian martyrs
to the city and joined nightly
vigils
over the
remains by herself. She is consistently reported to act alone in religious
matters and to appear alone in public. Arcadius remarkably absent from public
events.
[1]
An interpretation is that Eudoxia had adopted the role of
patron of the Church previously belonging to the Augusti from
Constantine I
onwards.
[1]
Her role would bring her into conflict with
John Chrysostom
, the
Patriarch of Constantinople
. Their initial opposition may have been his
protests over the fall from power and execution of Eutropius.
During his time as Archbishop John adamantly refused to host
lavish social gatherings, which made him popular with the common people, but
unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy. His reforms of the clergy were
also unpopular with these groups. He told visiting regional preachers to return
to the churches they were meant to be serving — without any payout.[8]
At about the same time,
Theophilus
, the
Patriarch of Alexandria
, wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and
opposed John's appointment to Constantinople. Being an opponent of
Origen
's
teachings, he accused John of being too partial to the teachings of that
theologian. Theophilus had disciplined four
Egyptian
monks (known as
"the tall brothers") over their support of Origen's teachings. They fled to and
were welcomed by John. John made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia, the wife of the
eastern Emperor Arcadius
, who assumed (perhaps with justification) that his denunciations of
extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at herself.[9]
Depending on one's outlook, John was either tactless or
fearless when denouncing offences in high places. An alliance was soon formed
against him by Eudoxia, Theophilus and others of his enemies. They held a
synod
in 403 (the
Synod of the Oak
) to charge John, in which his connection to Origen was used
against him. It resulted in his deposition and banishment. He was called back by
Arcadius almost immediately, as the people became "tumultuous" over his
departure.[10]
There was also an
earthquake
the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of
God's anger,
prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement.[11]
Peace was short-lived. A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected
near his cathedral
. John denounced the dedication ceremonies. He spoke against her in
harsh terms: "Again Herodias raves; again she is troubled; she dances again; and
again desires to receive John’s head in a charger,"[12]
an allusion to the events surrounding the death of
John the Baptist
.
Herodias
was a member of the
Herodian Dynasty
. In the Gospels of
Mark
and
Matthew
, Herodias plays a major role in the execution of John the Baptist
execution, using the dance of her daughter
Salome
before
Herod
Antipas
and his party guests to ask for the head of the Baptist as a reward.
Once again John was banished, this time to the
Caucasus
in
Armenia
.[13]
Eudoxia would not survive long. Her seventh and last pregnancy ended in either a
miscarriage or, according to pseudo-Martyrius, a second stillbirth. She was left
bleeding
and died of an
infection
shortly after. Pseudo-Martyrius celebrates her death and considers her a second
Jezebel
[1].
The reference being to a Queen consort of the
Kingdom of Israel
whose conflict with
Elijah
, a
prophet, was described in the
Books of Kings
.
Children
Eudoxia and Arcadius had five known children. The main source
about their births and deaths is the chronicle of
Ammianus Marcellinus
:
-
Flacilla (born
17 June
397
). Her
birth was recorded by
Ammianus Marcellinus
. She predeaceased her father. Only sibling not
mentioned alive at his death in 408. -
Pulcheria
(19
January 399
- 453). Married
Marcian
. -
Arcadia (3
April 400
- 444). -
Theodosius II
(10
April 401
-
28 July
450
). -
Marina (12
February 403
- 449).
In
Greek mythology
,
Nike
was a
goddess
who personified
victory
, also known as the Winged Goddess of
Victory. The Roman equivalent was
Victoria
. Depending upon the time of various
myths, she was described as the daughter of
Pallas
(Titan) and
Styx (Water) and the sister of
Kratos
(Strength),
Bia
(Force), and
Zelus
(Zeal). Nike and her siblings were close
companions of Zeus
, the dominant deity of the
Greek pantheon
. According to classical (later)
myth, Styx brought them to Zeus when the god was assembling allies for the
Titan War
against the older deities. Nike
assumed the role of the divine
charioteer
, a role in which she often is
portrayed in Classical Greek art. Nike flew around battlefields rewarding the
victors with glory and fame.
Nike is seen with wings in most statues and paintings. Most other winged
deities in the Greek pantheon had shed their wings by Classical times. Nike is
the goddess of strength, speed, and victory. Nike was a very close acquaintance
of Athena
, and is thought to have stood in
Athena's outstretched hand in the statue of Athena located in the Parthenon.
Nike is one of the most commonly portrayed figures on Greek coins.
Names stemming from Nike include amongst others:
Nicholas
, Nicola, Nick, Nikolai, Nils, Klaas,
Nicole, Ike, Niki, Nikita, Nika, Niketas, and Nico. Flavius
Arcadius (377/378-1 May 408) was
Byzantine Emperor
in the Eastern half of the
Roman
Empire
from 395 until his death.
//
Arcadius was born in
Hispania
,
the elder son of
Theodosius I
and
Aelia Flaccilla
, and brother of
Honorius
, who would become a
Western Roman Emperor
. His father declared him an
Augustus
and co-ruler for the
Eastern half of the Empire
in January, 383. His younger brother was also
declared Augustus in 393, for the Western half.
As emperors, Honorius was under the control of the Romanized
Vandal
magister militum
Flavius
Stilicho
while Arcadius was dominated by one of his ministers,
Rufinus
. Stilicho is alleged by some to have wanted control of both
emperors, and is supposed to have had Rufinus assassinated by Gothic mercenaries
in 395; though definite proof of Stilicho's involvement in the assassination is
lacking, the intense competition and political jealousies engendered by the two
figures compose the main thread of the first part of Arcadius' reign. Arcadius'
new advisor, the eunuch
Eutropius
, simply took Rufinus' place as the power behind the Eastern
imperial throne.
Arcadius was also dominated by his wife
Aelia
Eudoxia
, who convinced her husband to dismiss Eutropius, who was holding the
consulate, at the height of his power, in 399. That same year, on the 13th July,
Arcadius issued an edict ordering that
all remaining non-Christian temples should be immediately demolished
.
Eudoxia's influence was strongly opposed by
John Chrysostom
, the
Patriarch of Constantinople
, who felt that she had used her family's wealth
to gain control over the emperor. Eudoxia used her influence to have Chrysostom
deposed in 404, but she died later that year. Eudoxia gave to Arcadius four
children: three daughters,
Pulcheria
,
Arcadia and Marina, and one son, Theodosius, the future Emperor
Theodosius II
.
Arcadius was dominated for the rest of his rule by
Anthemius
, the
Praetorian Prefect
, who made peace with Stilicho in the West. Arcadius
himself was more concerned with appearing to be a pious
Christian
than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only
nominally in control of his empire, in 408.
>
Character and works
In this reign of a weak emperor dominated by court politics,
a major theme was the ambivalence felt by prominent individuals and the court
parties that formed and regrouped round them towards
barbarians
,
which in Constantinople at this period meant
Goths
. In the
well-documented episode that revolved around
Gainas
, a
number of Gothic foederati stationed in the capital were massacred, the
survivors fleeing under the command of Gainas to
Thrace
, where
they were tracked down by imperial troops and slaughtered and Gainas dispatched.
The episode has been traditionally interpreted as a paroxysm of anti-barbarian
reaction that served to stabilise the East. The main source for the affair is a
mythology à clef by
Synesius
of
Cyrene, Aegyptus sive de providentia, (400)
an Egyptianising allegory that embodies a covert account of the events, the
exact interpretation of which continues to baffle scholars. Synesius' De
regno, which claims to be addressed to Arcadius himself, contains a tirade
against Goths.
A new
forum
was built in the name of Arcadius, on the seventh hill of
Constantinople, the Xērolophos, in which a
column
was begun to commemorate his 'victory' over Gainas (although the
column was only completed after Arcadius' death by
Theodosius II
).
The
Pentelic marble
portrait head of Arcadius (illustration) was
discovered in Istanbul close to the Forum Tauri, in June 1949, in excavating
foundations for new buildings of the University at
Beyazit
.
The neck was designed to be inserted in a torso, but no statue, base or
inscription was found. The
diadem
is a
fillet with rows of pearls along its edges and a rectangular stone set about
with pearls over the young emperor's forehead. |