Crown (British coin)
One crown
Great Britain
United Kingdom
Value
5/— (25p in decimal currency)
£5 (commemorative coins from 1990 and later)
Diameter 38 mm
Edge Milled
Composition
(1816–1919) 92.5% Ag
(1920–1946) 50% Ag
(1947–1970) Cupronickel
Years of minting 1707–1981
Obverse
Obverse of the crown of 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpg
Design Profile of the monarch (Victoria "jubilee head" design shown)
Designer Joseph Boehm
Design date 1887
Reverse
Reverse crown 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpg
Design Various (St George design shown)
Designer Benedetto Pistrucci
Design date 1817
The British crown was a denomination of sterling coinage worth
1
/
4
of
one pound, or 5 shillings, or 60 (old) pence. The crown was first
issued during the reign of Edward VI, as part of the coinage of the
Kingdom of England.
Always a heavy silver coin
weighing around one ounce, during the 19th and 20th centuries the crown
declined from being a real means of exchange to being a coin rarely
spent, and minted for commemorative purposes only. Unlike in some
territories of the British Empire (such as Jamaica), in the UK the crown
was never replaced as circulating currency by a five-shilling banknote.
"Decimal"
crowns were minted a few times after decimalisation of the British
currency in 1971, initially with a nominal value of 25 (new) pence.
However, commemorative crowns issued since 1990 have a face value of
five pounds.[1]
History
The coin's
origins lie in the English silver crown, one of many silver coins that
appeared in various countries from the 16th century onwards (most
famously the Spanish piece of eight), all of similar size and weight
(approx 38mm diameter, 25g fine silver) and thus interchangeable in
international trade. The Kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns
until early in the reign of Charles II.[2]
The
dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were
engraved by John Croker, a migrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy
of Saxony.[3]
The British silver crown was
always a large coin, and from the 19th century it did not circulate
well. However, crowns were usually struck in a new monarch's coronation
year, from George IV through Elizabeth II in 1953, with the exceptions
of George V and Edward VIII.
"Gothic" crown of Queen Victoria (1847). The coin had a mintage of just 8,000 and was produced to celebrate the Gothic revival
The
King George V "wreath" crowns struck from 1927 through 1936 (excluding
1935 when the more common "rocking horse" crown was minted to
commemorate the King's Silver Jubilee) depict a wreath on the reverse of
the coin and were struck in very low numbers. Generally struck late in
the year and intended to be purchased as Christmas gifts, they were
generally kept rather than circulated. The 1927 "wreath" crowns were
struck as proofs only (15,030 minted) and the 1934 coin had a mintage of
just 932.[citation needed]
With their large
size, many of the later coins were primarily commemoratives. The 1951
issue was for the Festival of Britain, and was only struck in proof
condition. The 1953 crown was issued to celebrate the Coronation of
Queen Elizabeth II, while the 1960 issue (which carried the same reverse
design as the previous crown in 1953) commemorated the British
Exhibition in New York. The 1965 issue carried the image of Winston
Churchill on the reverse. According to the Standard Catalogue of coins,
19,640,000 of this coin were minted, although intended as collectable
pieces the large mintage and lack of precious metal content means these
coins are effectively worthless today.[4] Production of the Churchill
crown began on 11 October 1965, and stopped in the summer of 1966.
The crown coin was nicknamed the dollar, but is not to be confused with the British trade dollar that circulated in the Orient.
In
2014, a new world record price was achieved for a milled silver crown.
The coin was unique, issued as a pattern by engraver Thomas Simon in
1663 and nicknamed the "Reddite Crown". It was presented to Charles II
as the new crown piece, but ultimately rejected in favour of the
Roettiers Brothers' design. Auctioneers Spink & Son of London sold
the coin on 27 March 2014 for £396,000 including commission.[5]
All pre-decimal crowns from 1818 on remain legal tender with a face value of 25p.[6]
Decimal crowns
Main articles: British twenty-five pence coin and Five pounds (British coin)
After
decimalisation on 15 February 1971, the 25-pence coin was introduced as
a replacement for the crown as a commemorative coin. These were legal
tender[6] and were made with large mintages.
Further
issues continued to be minted, initially with a value of twenty-five
pence (with no face value shown). From 1990, the face value of new crown
coins was raised to five pounds.[1]
Preceded by
English crown
Crown
1707–1965 Succeeded by
Twenty–five pence
Changing values
The
legal tender value of the crown remained as five shillings from 1544 to
1965. However, for most of this period there was no denominational
designation or "face value" mark of value displayed on the coin. From
1927 to 1939, the word "CROWN" appears, and from 1951 to 1960 this was
changed to "FIVE SHILLINGS". Coins minted since 1818 remain legal tender
with a face value of 25 pence.
Although all
"normal" issues since 1951 have been composed of cupro-nickel, special
proof versions have been produced for sale to collectors, and as gift
items, in silver, gold, and occasionally platinum.
The
fact that gold £5 crowns are now produced means that there are two
different strains of five pound gold coins, namely crowns and what are
now termed "quintuple sovereigns" for want of a more concise term.[7][8]
Numismatically,
the term "crown-sized" is used generically to describe large silver or
cupro-nickel coins of about 40 mm in diameter. Most Commonwealth
countries still issue crown-sized coins for sale to collectors.
New
Zealand's original fifty-cent pieces, and Australia's previously round
but now dodecagonal fifty-cent piece, although valued at five shillings
in predecimal accounting, are all smaller than the standard silver crown
pieces issued by those countries (and the UK). They were in fact
similarly sized to the predecimal half crown (worth two shillings and
sixpence).
Composition
For silver
crowns, the grade of silver adhered to the long-standing standard
(established in the 12th century by Henry II) – the Sterling Silver
standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing
alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way
towards discouraging the practice of "clipping", though this practice
was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of
the milled edge seen on coins today.
In a
debasement process which took effect in 1920, the silver content of all
British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with a portion of the
remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a
very dark colour after they had been in circulation for a significant
period. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, with the move to a
composition of cupro-nickel – except for proof issues, which returned to
the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition.
Since
the Great Recoinage of 1816, a crown has, as a general rule, had a
diameter of 38.61 millimetres (1.520 in), and weighed 28.276 grams
(defined as 10⁄11 troy ounce).[9][10]
Modern mintages
Monarch Year Number minted Detail Composition*
Edward VII As 5/- (60d - quarter sovereign)
1902 256,020 Coronation 0.925 silver
George V 1927 15,030 (proof only) 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1928 9,034 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1929 4,994 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1930 4,847 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1931 4,056 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1932 2,395 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1933 7,132 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1934 932 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
1935 714,769 George V and Queen Mary Silver Jubilee 0.500 silver
1936 2,473 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver
George VI 1937 418,699 Coronation 0.500 silver
1951 1,983,540 Festival of Britain Cu/Ni
Elizabeth II 1953 5,962,621 Coronation Cu/Ni
1960 1,024,038 British Exhibition in New York Cu/Ni
1965 19,640,000 Death of Sir Winston Churchill Cu/Ni
As 25p (quarter sovereign)
1972 7,452,100 Queen Elizabeth II 25th Wedding Anniversary 25p Cu/Ni
1977 37,061,160 Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Cu/Ni
1980 9,306,000 Queen Mother 80th Birthday Cu/Ni
1981 26,773,600 Charles & Diana Wedding Cu/Ni
For crowns minted from 1990, which have a value of £5, see here.
The
specifications for composition refer to the standard circulation
versions. Proof versions continue to be minted in Sterling silver.
Gallery
Quarter sovereign
In
1853, the Royal Mint had produced two patterns for a gold 5-shilling
coin for circulation use, one denominated as five shillings and the
other as a quarter sovereign, but this coin never went into production,
in part due to concerns about the small size of the coin and likely wear
in circulation.[11] The quarter sovereign was introduced in 2009 as a
bullion coin.
References
icon Money portal
Numismatics portal
flag United Kingdom portal
"The Royal Mint: Five Pound Coin Designs and Specifications". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
"Crown".
Royal Mint Museum. Retrieved 17 July 2022. In 1551 Edward VI issued a
large silver coin of the value of five shillings and as its currency
value was the same as that of the gold crown it took its name from that
coin. Both gold and silver crowns continued to be struck concurrently
until early in the reign of Charles II, when minting of the gold crown
ceased.
Warwick William Wroth, 'Croker, John (1670-1741)' in Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, vol. 13
"How Much is a 1965 Winston Churchill Coin Worth?". churchillcentral.com. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
"Spink
sets new world record for an English silver coin, 27 March 2014". Spink
Auctioneers. Archived from the original on 2 April 2014. Retrieved 27
March 2014.
"How can I dispose of commemorative crowns? And
why do some have a higher face value than others?". The Royal Mint
Museum. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 22
November 2019.
"Quintuple Sovereigns - Five Pound Gold Coins". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
"British Gold Proof Commemorative Crowns". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
Specifications of British Pre-decimal Coins
Kindleberger, Charles P. (2005). A Financial History of Western Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 60. ISBN 9780415378673.
OnlineCoinClub Quarter Sovereign pre-decimal
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crown (British coin).
History of Five Shilling Coins on Coins of the UK
Royal Mint Museum's history of Crown Coin
Crown, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club
vte
Currency units named crown or similar
Circulating
Czech korunaDanish kroneFaroese krónaIcelandic krónaNorwegian kroneSwedish krona
Defunct
Austrian
kroneAustrian Netherlands kronenthalerAustro-Hungarian crownBohemian
and Moravian korunaCzechoslovak korunaEstonian kroonFiume kroneHungarian
koronaLiechtenstein kroneSlovak korunaSlovak koruna (1939–1945)Yugoslav
krone
Proposed
Greenlandic koruuni
As a denomination
British crownEnglish crownKronenthaler
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Sterling coinage
Decimal
1
/
2
p1p2p5p10p20p50p£1£2
Pre-decimal
Quarter farthing (
1
/
16
d) (British Ceylon)Third farthing (
1
/
12
d) (Crown Colony of Malta)Half farthing (
1
/
8
d)Farthing (
1
/
4
d)Halfpenny (
1
/
2
d)Penny (1d)Three halfpence (1+
1
/
2
d)
(British Ceylon & British West Indies)Twopence (2d)Threepence
(3d)Fourpence (4d)Sixpence (6d)Shilling (1/–)Fifteen pence (1/3d)
(Australia)Eighteen Pence(1/6d) (British Ireland)Florin (2/–)Half crown
(2/6d)Thirty Pence(2/6d) (British Ireland)Double florin (4/–)Crown
(5/–)Six Shillings (6/-) (British Ireland)Quarter guinea (5/3d)Third
guinea (7/–)Half sovereign (10/–)Half guinea (10/6d)Sovereign (£1)Guinea
(£1/1/–)Double sovereign (£2)Two guineas (£2/2/–)Five pounds (£5)Five
guineas (£5/5/–)
Commemorative
3p (Tristan Da Cunha)6p25p60p (Isle of Man)70p (Ascension Island)£5£10£20£25£50£100£200£500£1000Maundy money
Bullion
BritanniaQuarter sovereignHalf sovereignSovereignDouble sovereignQuintuple sovereignLunarThe Queen's BeastsLandmarks of Britain
See also
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banknotesList of British banknotes and coinsList of British
currenciesJubilee coinageOld Head coinageScottish coinageCoins of
IrelandList of people on coins of the United Kingdom
Categories: Crown (currency)Coins of Great BritainCoins of the United KingdomQuarter-base-unit coins
Queen Victoria
Victoria
Photograph of Queen Victoria, 1882
Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882
Queen of the United Kingdom (more ...)
Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901
Coronation 28 June 1838
Predecessor William IV
Successor Edward VII
Empress of India
Reign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901
Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877
Successor Edward VII
Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent
24 May 1819
Kensington Palace, London, England
Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81)
Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England
Burial 4 February 1901
Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor
Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
(m. 1840; died 1861)
Issue
Victoria, German Empress
Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom
Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine
Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein
Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn
Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany
Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg
House Hanover
Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn
Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
Signature Victoria's signature
Victoria
(Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her
death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and
seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a
period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within
the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British
Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the
additional title of Empress of India.
Victoria was the daughter
of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King
George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the
deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close
supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She
inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers
died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional
monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and
ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was
identified with strict standards of personal morality.
Victoria
married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in
1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the
continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe"
and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in
1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public
appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism
temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her
popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of
public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last
British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son
Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Birth and family
Portrait of Victoria at age 4
Victoria at the age of four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823
Victoria's
father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son
of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817,
Edward's niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate
grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession
crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried
brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess
Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two
children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage
to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess
Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and
Duchess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May
1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1]
Victoria was christened
privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24
June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[a] She was baptised
Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and
Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her
parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on
the instructions of Kent's eldest brother George, Prince Regent.[2]
At
birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four
eldest sons of George III: the Prince Regent (later George IV);
Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV);
and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] The Prince Regent had no
surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both
were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age,
so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate
children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both
of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these
was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two
months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820,
when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather
died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then
third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. William's
second daughter, Princess Elizabeth of Clarence, lived for twelve weeks
from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821, and for that period Victoria was
fourth in line.[4]
The Duke of York died in 1827, followed by
George IV in 1830; the throne passed to their next surviving brother,
William, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made
special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case
William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William
distrusted the Duchess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared
in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday,
so that a regency could be avoided.[6]
Heir presumptive
Portrait of Victoria with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833
Victoria
later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was
extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from
other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set
of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and
domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the
Duchess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting
people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of
her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent
upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised
by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria
shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private
tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls
and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French,
German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13]
Victoria's sketch of herself
Self-portrait, 1835
In
1830, the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of
England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country
houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England
and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's
annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the
stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was
concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir
presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of
public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for
her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval,
but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and
forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835,
Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a
childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess
unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As
a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and
Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from
her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22]
By
1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the
Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of
his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged
for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May
1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William
IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead
favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of
the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial
plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26]
According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning.
After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is
about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a
beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of
his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27]
Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28]
Victoria
wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest
adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have
contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses
every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is
so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides
the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can
possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert,
was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal
engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31]
Early reign
Accession
Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria
Victoria
receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the
Archbishop of Canterbury. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887.
Victoria
turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month
later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria
became Queen of the United Kingdom.[b] In her diary she wrote, "I was
awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury
and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and
went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw
them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King,
was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and
consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the
first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the
first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33]
Since
1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under
Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While
Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger
brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He
was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34]
Coronation portrait by George Hayter
At
the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig
prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on
the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for
advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless
Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter
if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36]
Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over
400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the
first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and
inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well
as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year.
Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39]
At the
start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered
in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting,
Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely
rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41]
Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that
odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the
Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora
refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in
mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a
virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories
organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of
false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the
post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her
abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as
"Mrs. Melbourne".[48]
In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals
and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to
suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power
from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the
abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to
form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime
minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his
political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the
bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with
wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis",
Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused
to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently
resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50]
Marriage
See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria
Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room
Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter
Though
Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by
social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences
over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on
Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham
Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria
complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment
for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by
marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53]
Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he
would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her
into wedlock.[54]
Victoria continued to praise Albert following
his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual
affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five
days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10
February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London.
Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding
lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary:
I
NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert
... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love
& happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He
clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again!
His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be
thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of
tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond
belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56]
Albert
became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion,
replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half
of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to
Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt,
Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and
Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between
mother and daughter slowly improved.[59]
Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840
During
Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the
marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while
she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her
mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he
later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason,
found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum
indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate
aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating
residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber
crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November
1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with
disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless,
over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight
children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844),
Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853)
and Beatrice (b. 1857).
The household was largely run by
Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover.
Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported
her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that
Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his
daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over
the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close
relationship with her ended.[68]
Married reign
Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843
On
29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London,
when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The
assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route,
though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait
Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected,
Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and
convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death
sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also
tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper
and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the
attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to
18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman
William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as
it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did
sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army
officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck
her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both
Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72]
Melbourne's
support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of
Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were
defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber
most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73]
Victoria cuddling a child next to her
Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, c. 1845[74]
In
1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years,
over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what
became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled
"The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated
£2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to
the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine
relief donor,[80] and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman
Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The
story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day
gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated
towards the end of the 19th century.[82]
By 1846, Peel's ministry
faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by
then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel,
some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"),
most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the
repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83]
Victoria's British prime ministers
Year Prime Minister (party)
1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig)
1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative)
1846 Lord John Russell (W)
1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C)
1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite)
1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal)
1858 Earl of Derby (C)
1859 Viscount Palmerston (L)
1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L)
1866 Earl of Derby (C)
1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C)
1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L)
1874 Benjamin Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C)
1880 William Gladstone (L)
1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C)
1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L)
1886 (Jul) Marquess of Salisbury (C)
1892 William Gladstone (L)
1894 Earl of Rosebery (L)
1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C)
See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria
for details of her British and Imperial premiers
Internationally,
Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between
France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the
British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by
marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed
with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the
first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the
meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of
the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal
trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British
sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848,
and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare
in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left
London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on
the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89]
Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract
widespread support, and the scare died down without any major
disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public
relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth
of Irish nationalism.[91]
Portrait of the young Queen by Herbert Smith, 1848
Russell's
ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found
particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often
acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the
Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official
dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was
retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite
her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was
removed after he announced the British government's approval of
President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting
the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was
declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration
had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord
Derby.
Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her
Albert,
Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur,
Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with
Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena.
In 1853, Victoria gave birth
to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic,
chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of
childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and
final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy,
who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical
profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had
postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from
Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control.
For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a
letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a
"miserable trifle".[97]
In early 1855, the government of Lord
Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the
poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria
approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had
sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as
prime minister.[98]
Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a
result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17
to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99]
Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to
Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to
Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at
Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and
were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of
Versailles.[101]
Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859
On 14
January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini
attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[102]
The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and
Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[103]
Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French
military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon
III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed
elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for
the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[104]
Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled
Palmerston to office.[105]
Eleven days after Orsini's
assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married
Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed
since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the
marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride
was 17.[106] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and
son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian
state.[107] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave
England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess
Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your
sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too –
one by one."[108] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth
to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last
German Emperor.
Widowhood
Victoria photographed by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860
In
March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through
reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had
loved her deeply;[109] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and
Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[110] To relieve
his wife during her intense and deep grief,[111] Albert took on most of
her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[112]
In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince
of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a
few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of
gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[113] Appalled,
he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront
him.[114] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[115] He
was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14
December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[116] She blamed her husband's
death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been
"killed by that dreadful business", she said.[117] She entered a state
of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided
public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following
years.[118] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of
Windsor".[119] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which
reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[120]
Victoria's
self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the
monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[121] She
did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain
secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the
private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847,
Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the
railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises
to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining
business".[122] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in
public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural
Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open
carriage.[123]
Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson.
Through
the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland,
John Brown.[124] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret
marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs.
Brown".[125] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997
movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the
Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria
published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands,
which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him
highly.[126]
Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry
led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the
State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's
death.[127] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform
Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many
urban working men,[128] though she was not in favour of votes for
women.[129] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli,
who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you
come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[130] With the
phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[131] Disraeli's
ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his
Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister.
Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to
her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public
meeting rather than a woman".[132]
In 1870 republican sentiment
in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the
establishment of the Third French Republic.[133] A republican rally in
Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke
against her.[134] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill
with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and
treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[135] In late
November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of
Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have
killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[136] As
the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's
condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[137] To
general rejoicing, he recovered.[138] Mother and son attended a public
parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's
Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[139]
On
the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service,
17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus
O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just
after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the
Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months'
imprisonment,[140] and a birching.[141] As a result of the incident,
Victoria's popularity recovered further.[142]
Empress
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India
After
the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had
ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and
protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into
the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the
conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[143] She wrote of "her
feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil
war",[144] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official
proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the
state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious
toleration".[145] At her behest, a reference threatening the
"undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage
guaranteeing religious freedom.[145]
Victoria admired
Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want
of flattery, and appreciation of character".[146]
In the 1874 general
election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship
Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican
liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[147] She preferred short,
simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with
the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of
England.[148] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through
Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1
May 1876.[149] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1
January 1877.[150]
On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of
Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis
of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the
coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most
mysterious".[151] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the
birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old
60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[152]
Between
April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate
while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish
War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion
with the Congress of Berlin.[153] Disraeli's expansionist foreign
policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu
War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our
position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for
attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[154] Victoria saw
the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting
native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not
in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged
& forced to do so."[155] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the
1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[156]
When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling
tears",[157] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful
Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[158]
Later years
Victorian farthing, 1884
On
2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended
by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[159] shot at the Queen
as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and
another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas,
until he was hustled away by a policeman.[160] Victoria was outraged
when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[161] but was so
pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she
said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[162]
On
17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left
her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with
rheumatism thereafter.[163] John Brown died 10 days after her accident,
and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby,
Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[164] Ponsonby
and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts,
advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke
the rumours of a love affair.[165] The manuscript was destroyed.[166]
In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life
in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to
her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[167] On
the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was
informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes.
He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[168] The following
month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with
Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter
Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis
of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed
the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her
companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their
promise to remain living with and attending her.[169]
Extent of the British Empire in 1898
Victoria
was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was
defeated.[170] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever
had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[171]
Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only
lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall
Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many
ways ridiculous old man".[172] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill
granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[173]
In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the
government switched hands again.
Golden Jubilee
The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk
Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim
In
1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She
marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a
banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day,
she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in
Westminster Abbey.[174] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely
popular.[175] Two days later on 23 June,[176] she engaged two Indian
Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to
"Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[177][178][179] Her
family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying
for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the
Hindus.[180] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry)
discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to
Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same
position as John Brown used to do."[181] Victoria dismissed their
complaints as racial prejudice.[182] Abdul Karim remained in her service
until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[183]
Victoria's
eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was
widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest
grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's
hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm
believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or
Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been
completely wharped [sic]".[184]
Gladstone returned to power after
the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when
Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the
Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[185] In 1894, Gladstone
retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria
appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[186] His government was weak,
and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained
prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[187]
Diamond Jubilee
Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress
Victoria in her official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey
On
23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the
longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that
any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her
Diamond Jubilee,[188] which was made a festival of the British Empire at
the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[189] The
prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to
London for the festivities.[190] One reason for including the prime
ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to
avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who,
it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[191]
The Queen's
Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles
long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The
procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside
St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage,
to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The
celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great
outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[192]
Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900
Victoria
visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay
in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set
foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[193] By
April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her
annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to
Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the
contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[194]
Death and succession
Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899
In
July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My
poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a
horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind &
another."[195]
Following a custom she maintained throughout her
widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the
Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her
eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[196] Through early January, she felt
"weak and unwell",[197] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed,
[and] confused".[198] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in
the evening, at the age of 81.[199] Her son and successor, King Edward
VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II, were at her
deathbed.[200] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her
deathbed as a last request.[201]
Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral
In
1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to
be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the
army,[96] and white instead of black.[202] On 25 January, Edward,
Wilhelm, and her third son, Arthur, helped lift her body into the
coffin.[203] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[204]
An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and
servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor
and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side,
with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair,
along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from
the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of
flowers.[96][205] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the
wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96]
Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel,
Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred
beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great
Park.[206]
With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days,
Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the
longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her
great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September
2015.[207] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of
Hanover; her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to her husband's
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Legacy
See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria
Victoria smiling
Victoria
amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there
is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][208] and she denied
doing so.[209]
According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn,
Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult
life.[210] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a
detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[211] After
Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was
appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the
diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals
in the process.[212] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still
exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed
the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[213] Part
of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes
edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher,
Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[214]
Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side
The
Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected as part of
the remodelling of the façade of the Palace a decade after her death.
Victoria
was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five
feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand
image.[215] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her
widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she
embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[216] Only after
the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political
influence become known to the wider public.[96][217] Biographies of
Victoria written before much of the primary material became available,
such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out
of date.[218] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil
Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely
admired.[219] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was
emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[220] Contrary to
popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was
immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[221]
Through
Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional
monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased
the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords
and the monarch.[222] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch
only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and
the right to warn".[223] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic
than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family
values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that
had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and
which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family
monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was
solidified.[224]
Descendants and haemophilia
Victoria's links
with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of
Europe".[225] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34
survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Elizabeth II;
Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark;
and Felipe VI of Spain.
Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was
affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of
her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal
haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons,
Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias;
and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[226] The presence of the disease in
Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern
speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a
haemophiliac.[227] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in
connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the
disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously
ill.[228] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously
because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and
haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older
fathers.[229] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of
cases.[230]
Namesakes
The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India
Around
the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the
Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa's largest
lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and
Saskatchewan (Regina), two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland),
and the capital of the island nation of Seychelles.
The Victoria
Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean
War,[231] and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and
New Zealand award for bravery. Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory
holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on
the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday).
Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Titles and styles
24 May 1819 – 20 June 1837: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent
20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901: Her Majesty The Queen
At
the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty
Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232]
Honours
British honours
Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233]
Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[234]
Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[235]
Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[236]
Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[237]
Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[238]
Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[239]
Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[240]
Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[241]
Foreign honours
Spain:
Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[242]
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[243]
Portugal:
Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[244]
Grand Cross of Our Lady of Conception[243]
Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[245]
France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[246]
Mexico: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[247]
Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[248]
Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[249]
Persia:[250]
Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873
Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873
Siam:
Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[251]
Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[252]
Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[253]
Serbia:[254][255]
Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882
Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883
Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897
Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[256]
Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[257]
Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[258]
Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[259]
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[260]
Arms
As
Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom.
Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not
succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian
symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been
borne by all of her successors on the throne.
Outside Scotland,
the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly:
I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England);
II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory
Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for
Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the
Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests,
mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland.
Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg
Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg
Royal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland)
Family
Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter.
Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria.
Issue
See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian IX
Name Birth Death Spouse and children[232][261]
Victoria, Princess Royal 21 November
1840 5 August
1901 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888);
4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece)
Edward VII of the United Kingdom 9 November
1841 6 May
1910 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925);
3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway)
Princess Alice 25 April
1843 14 December
1878 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892);
2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia)
Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 6 August
1844 31 July
1900 Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920);
2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania)
Princess Helena 25 May
1846 9 June
1923 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917);
4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters
Princess Louise 18 March
1848 3 December
1939 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914);
no issue
Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1 May
1850 16 January
1942 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917);
1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden)
Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 7 April
1853 28 March
1884 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922);
1 son, 1 daughter
Princess Beatrice 14 April
1857 26 October
1944 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896);
3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain)
Ancestry
Ancestors of Queen Victoria[262]
Family tree
Red borders indicate British monarchs
Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs
Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V
Notes
Her
godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle
Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt
Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess
Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary,
Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh).
Under section 2 of the Regency
Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria as the
King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty
King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's
Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581.
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Queen! The Eight Assassination Attempts on Queen Victoria, Stroud:
Amberley Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4456-0457-2
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Dorothy (1972), The Life and Times of Queen Victoria (1992 reprint
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D. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1995), Queen Victoria's Gene: Haemophilia and
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Strachey, Lytton (1921), Queen Victoria, London: Chatto and Windus
Waller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2
Weintraub, Stanley (1997), Albert: Uncrowned King, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5756-9
Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1972), Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times 1819–1861, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-241-02200-2
Worsley, Lucy (2018), Queen Victoria – Daughter, Wife, Mother, Widow, London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4736-5138-8
Primary sources
Benson,
A. C.; Esher, Viscount, eds. (1907), The Letters of Queen Victoria: A
Selection of Her Majesty's Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and
1861, London: John Murray
Bolitho, Hector, ed. (1938), Letters of
Queen Victoria from the Archives of the House of Brandenburg-Prussia,
London: Thornton Butterworth
Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1926), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 2nd Series 1862–1885, London: John Murray
Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1930), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 3rd Series 1886–1901, London: John Murray
Connell,
Brian (1962), Regina v. Palmerston: The Correspondence between Queen
Victoria and her Foreign and Prime Minister, 1837–1865, London: Evans
Brothers
Duff, David, ed. (1968), Victoria in the Highlands: The Personal Journal of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, London: Muller
Dyson,
Hope; Tennyson, Charles, eds. (1969), Dear and Honoured Lady: The
Correspondence between Queen Victoria and Alfred Tennyson, London:
Macmillan
Esher, Viscount, ed. (1912), The Girlhood of Queen
Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Diaries Between the Years 1832
and 1840, London: John Murray
Fulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest
Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, 1858–1861,
London: Evans Brothers
Fulford, Roger, ed. (1968), Dearest Mama:
Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia,
1861–1864, London: Evans Brothers
Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Beloved
Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown
Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans Brothers
Fulford, Roger, ed.
(1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and
the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans Brothers
Fulford,
Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private Correspondence of Queen
Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, London:
Evans Brothers
Hibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7
Hough,
Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from Queen
Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN
0-434-34861-9
Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John Murray
Mortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy
Ponsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: Macmillan
Ramm,
Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters between
Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud: Sutton
Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6
Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, Elder
Victoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, Elder
Further reading
Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4
Baird,
Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the Woman
Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6988-0
Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria's Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, Bloomsbury
Carter,
Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen
Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University Press
Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto
Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7
Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press
Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876
Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3
James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630
Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire
Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8
Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin
Taylor,
Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of British
Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777
Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2
Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0
External links
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Queen Victoria
House of Hanover
Cadet branch of the House of Welf
Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901
Regnal titles
Preceded by
William IV
Queen of the United Kingdom
20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded by
Edward VII
Vacant
Title last held by
Bahadur Shah II
as Mughal emperor Empress of India
1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901
vte
Queen Victoria
Events
Coronation
HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee
HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower,
BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee
HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional
(poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House Ball
Reign
Bedchamber
crisisPrime MinistersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William
BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign
visitsState funeralMausoleum
Family
Albert, Prince Consort
(husband)Victoria, Princess Royal (daughter)Edward VII (son)Princess
Alice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha (son)Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (daughter)Princess
Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and
Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Princess Beatrice
of the United Kingdom (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and
Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
(mother)DescendantsRoyal descendantsPrincess Feodora of Leiningen
(half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother)
Early life
Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy
Honours
PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant)
Depictions
Film
Sixty
Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great
(1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown
(1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black
Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020)
Television
Happy and Glorious
(1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria &
Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs
(2011)Victoria (2016–2019)
Stage
Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972)
Statues and
Memorials
List
of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt
HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral
cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal
SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong
KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney
BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch
Poetry
"The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897)
Songs
VictoriaChoral Songs
Stamps
British
Penny
Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed
stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny
LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue
Colonial
Chalon
headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted
Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps
Related
Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond Crown
vte
English, Scottish and British monarchs
Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603
Alfred
the GreatEdward the ElderÆlfweardÆthelstanEdmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the
PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund
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IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward
VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I
Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald
IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm
IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm
IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander
IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert
IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames
IVJames VMary IJames VI
Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603
James I and VICharles ICharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne
British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707
AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth II
Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.
vte
British princesses
The
generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of
the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family.
Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than
once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is
used.
1st generation
Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia
2nd generation
Anne,
Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess
CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and
Norway
3rd generation
Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway
4th generation
Charlotte,
Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta
SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of
Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of
GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester
5th generation
Princess
Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth
of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of
Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck
6th generation
Victoria,
Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by
RhinePrincess Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess
Louise, Duchess of ArgyllPrincess Beatrice, Princess Henry of
BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie
of Hanover
7th generation
Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess
of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of
RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra,
Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of
GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenPrincess Patricia, Lady
Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthlonePrincess Marie Louise,
Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of
Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover
8th generation
Mary,
Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodPrincess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess
of FifePrincess Maud, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of
VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and
GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece
9th generation
Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy
10th generation
Anne, Princess Royal
11th generation
Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor1
12th generation
Princess Charlotte of Cambridge
1 Status debatable; see her article.
vte
Hanoverian princesses by birth
Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III.
1st generation
Charlotte,
Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of
Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess
SophiaPrincess Amelia
2nd generation
Charlotte, Princess
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen
Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta,
Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of
Teck
3rd generation
Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie
4th generation
Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga
5th generation
Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes
6th generation
Princess Marie, Countess von HochbergPrincess OlgaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of LeiningenPrincess Friederike
7th generation
Princess AlexandraPrincess Eugenia
8th generation
Princess ElisabethPrincess EleonoraPrincess Sofia
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Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901
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IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of
St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo
What is an Antique
7
What exactly is an Antique?
In
purist words, and based on the “official” description from the United
States Customs Service, antiques have generally been viewed as things
with no less than a hundred years of age under their belts. Meaning the
scale slides each year since a lot more items age to suit into that
particular time period.
Then again, the word antique is employed
rather freely from the public, and frequently lands up highlighting the
age of the individual utilizing it over the definite definition. For a
teenager, for instance, a home kitchen items from the 60’s appears
“antique,” while a older adult may see antiques as the numerous items
they utilized or spotted in the homes of their grandparents as a kid.
Varying Views Among “Experts”
Obviously,
you may ask several different antiques “experts” what exactly an
antique is and you’ll obtain a few different answers. There have already
been hot discussions about this very topic when multiple antiques
experts have gathered to try and define the word antique.
A few
experts tend to look more at high design and style whenever deeming an
item antique. They view antiques as “masterpieces” of style and of
merely the best quality. For this evaluation, anything from primitive
furniture of all ages to faceless Amish rag dolls coming from the late
twentieth century wouldn’t be regarded antique no matter the scarcity of
the object. A number of other experts don’t agree with these people.
A
great way to view it is the dividing line drawn in which styles totally
changed from the old-fashioned look toward the contemporary. Hemlines
were reduced and simplified, and Art Deco design was the extremely
popular throughout the 1920s stepping into the 1930s. These types of
fashion and design developments having a modern curve, and the like
within this transitional period, offer a stark distinction into the
elegant nature of Victorian, Edwardian, as well as Colonial influences
observed in the past decades to hundreds of years.
Bearing this
in mind, one perspective is to see things made just before 1920 as
antiques and newer items as “collectibles.” The antique scale slides
with regards to the real age of these items as we go on to move ahead
through the calendar, however. The moment 2020 comes around these
objects will be regarded as antiques by the U.S. Customs Service
definition thus broadly adopted in the field.
How Must You Describe Objects You’re Selling?
Perhaps
even the most honest sellers having the best of intentions can do a
miscalculation occasionally to describe their wares. However when
sellers use terms improperly, particularly if they do it over and over
again, those blunders could quickly ruin their integrity. For this
reason alone it’s best if you try to obtain the facts straight.
Distinguishing
something that is actually a collectible – anything under a hundred
years old – as an antique makes smart buyers feel as if you’re simply
wanting to pull one over to them. It may also cause you to look ignorant
as to what you’re selling, or much worse, dishonest.
If the item
is clearly newer than a hundred years in age, simply refer to it as a
collectible. In case you actually think that a product is over a hundred
years in age after doing research, then it’s completely fine to refer
to it as an antique. A few online selling sites have got particular
groups to adhere to which differentiate antiques from collectibles.
You’ll do better by having it right, because potential clients will
examine those classes for what they’re searching for apart from
depending on keyword searches.
Even when you are marketing in an
antique shopping mall or in a show, marking and representing your things
precisely helps you well. Clients will return over and over again to
find out what’s new within your booth should you do your very best to
provide them great product which has been carefully investigated and
properly sold.
Types of Antiques
As stated over and over
before, antiques are items of old things like home furniture and jewelry
or uncommon things which have been stored for over a hundred years old.
When you are planning to enter antique collecting, then you’ll discover
that this is an incredibly satisfying exercise where you can find a
number of classes involved.
You’ll certainly discover a rare item
or thing at numerous avenues such as antique art galleries or at local
flea markets and car boot sales and prior to going out and begin
purchasing all that hits your curiosity you must first know the types of
antique. Generally, antiques are things that where possible over a
century old while they’re recognized for being rare, incredible and
valuable. Here are a few types of antique items:
Antique Furniture
183-144-190-Rosewood-Rococo-Parlor-set-Laminated-Pierced-carved-sofa-74in-long-50in.-Tall-by-Meeks-Stanton-Hall-patt.jpg
An
antique furniture is a valuable interior decorations of old age.
Frequently its age, uniqueness, condition, utility, or any other unique
features makes a furniture piece appealing as a collectors’ item, and so
called an “antique”.
Antique furniture might provide the body of
a human (like seating or beds), offer storage space, or carry items on
horizontal surfaces on top of the ground. Storage furniture (which
frequently employs doors, compartments, as well as shelves) is utilized
to carry or contain little items like tools, clothes, books, as well as
home items. Furniture could be a product of creative style and it is
regarded a type of decorative art. Besides furniture’s useful function,
it could function a emblematic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture
functions to produce, along with furnishings like clocks and lighting,
comfy and convenient interior spots. Furniture can be created from
numerous materials, such as steel, plastic, as well as wood. Cabinets
and cupboard making are terms for the set of skills utilized in the
constructing of furniture.
Antique Jewelry
IMG_0539-copy
Antique
jewellery is jewellery which has hit an age of a hundred years or even
more which makes it a witness of history. It’s commonly employed for
second hand jewelry and for jewellery produced in earlier
(style-)periods and not always pre-worn jewellery. It isn’t a
dequalifying designation as numerous items of antique jewellery usually
feature fine craftsmanship and superior quality gemstones, and also
one-of-a-kind items. Antique jewellery consists of numerous years or
eras. All of them has numerous different styles. These periods can
include Early Victorian, Georgian, Mid-Victorian, Late Victorian, Crafts
and arts era, Edwardian, Art Nouveau, Retro and Art Deco.
Throughout
the years it was royals who requested and set trends for the various
fashions obediently accompanied by the upper class and bourgeoisie. The
church too was a vitally important commissioner, even though more for
silversmiths compared to goldsmiths.
Antique Clocks
maxresdefault
Just
as the name suggests, this object refers to mechanical clocks which
were made over a hundred years ago. However, mechanical clocks have
carried on to be made well into the twentieth century and still being
manufactured these days.
It must be observed that the majority of
mechanical clocks which have been made over the past a hundred years,
example the ones that aren’t antique, have been produced in a factory
employing mass production methods.
Mechanical antique clocks are
available in many forms, both ground standing grandfather (longcase)
clocks, wall dangling clocks, rack and mantle clocks as well as mount or
table clocks. Antique clocks could be run both by weights working under
gravity, or perhaps by springs. The two weight driven clocks as well as
spring driven clocks are often wrapped by a key or crank (key) over the
dial in front of the clock.
Antique Kitchenware
vintage-antique-kitchen-utensils-l-3ad44d78a72aee02
Aged
or historic kitchen items go by many different labels from “culinary
antiques” to “vintage kitchenalia”. No matter whether they’re ancient or
mid-20th century “retro”, nearly all old cooking, serving, as well as
storage objects attract a few collector wherever.
Numerous items
are simple to recognize, although not all. It’s not at all times obvious
if the simple box or pot or implement had a specific title or perhaps a
specific use. A set of jars (earthenware, stoneware, glass from the
twentieth century) as well as boxes (wooden, tin) was required whenever
food was kept at home and groceries were offered unwrapped. Homes got
various beaters, paddles, as well as bats – a number of them called
beetles – for functions from tenderising meat to working butter to
pumping the dirt away from clothes. Basic wooden boards, mixing sticks,
and big spoons had a number of uses.
At times kitchen
collectibles are classified based on what they’re made from. Wood
(treen), copper, tinware, stoneware and many others.
.
Edward
VIII (Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David; 23 June 1894
– 28 May 1972) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the
British Empire and Emperor of India from 20 January 1936 until his
abdication in December of the same year.[a]
Edward was born
during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria as the eldest
child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George V and Queen
Mary. He was created Prince of Wales on his 16th birthday, seven weeks
after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, Edward served in the
British Army during the First World War and undertook several overseas
tours on behalf of his father. While Prince of Wales, he engaged in a
series of sexual affairs that worried both his father and then-British
prime minister Stanley Baldwin.
Upon his father's death in 1936,
Edward became the second monarch of the House of Windsor. The new king
showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among
politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional
conventions. Only months into his reign, a constitutional crisis was
caused by his proposal to marry Wallis Simpson, an American who had
divorced her first husband and was seeking a divorce from her second.
The prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions opposed the
marriage, arguing a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands was
politically and socially unacceptable as a prospective queen consort.
Additionally, such a marriage would have conflicted with Edward's status
as titular head of the Church of England, which, at the time,
disapproved of remarriage after divorce if a former spouse was still
alive. Edward knew the Baldwin government would resign if the marriage
went ahead, which could have forced a general election and would have
ruined his status as a politically neutral constitutional monarch. When
it became apparent he could not marry Simpson and remain on the throne,
he abdicated. He was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a
reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the shortest-reigning British
monarchs to date.
After his abdication, Edward was created Duke
of Windsor. He married Simpson in France on 3 June 1937, after her
second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Nazi
Germany, which fed rumours that he was a Nazi sympathiser. During the
Second World War, Edward was at first stationed with the British
Military Mission to France but after the fall of France was appointed
Governor of the Bahamas. After the war, Edward spent the rest of his
life in France. He and Wallis remained married until his death in 1972;
they had no children.
Early life
Edward (second from left) with his father and younger siblings (Albert and Mary), photograph by his grandmother Alexandra, 1899
Edward
was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park, on the
outskirts of London during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen
Victoria.[2] He was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York
(later King George V and Queen Mary). His father was the son of the
Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen
Alexandra). His mother was the eldest daughter of Princess Mary Adelaide
of Cambridge and Francis, Duke of Teck. At the time of his birth, he
was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind his
grandfather and father.
He was baptised Edward Albert Christian
George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on
16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury.[b] The
name "Edward" was chosen in honour of Edward's late uncle Prince Albert
Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, who was known within the family
as "Eddy" (Edward being among his given names); "Albert" was included at
the behest of Queen Victoria for her late husband Albert, Prince
Consort; "Christian" was in honour of his great-grandfather King
Christian IX of Denmark; and the last four names – George, Andrew,
Patrick and David – came from, respectively, the patron saints of
England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.[4] He was always known to his
family and close friends by his last given name, David.[5]
As was
common practice with upper-class children of the time, Edward and his
younger siblings were brought up by nannies rather than directly by
their parents. One of Edward's early nannies often abused him by
pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents. His
subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send
him and the nanny away.[6] The nanny was discharged after her
mistreatment of the children was discovered, and she was replaced by
Charlotte Bill.[7]
Edward's father, though a harsh
disciplinarian,[8] was demonstratively affectionate,[9] and his mother
displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere
public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast
for their French master as a prank,[10] and encouraged them to confide
in her.[11]
Education
Edward as a midshipman on board HMS Hindustan, 1910
Initially,
Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. When his parents travelled
the British Empire for almost nine months following the death of Queen
Victoria in 1901, young Edward and his siblings stayed in Britain with
their grandparents, Queen Alexandra and King Edward VII, who showered
their grandchildren with affection. Upon his parents' return, Edward was
placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell,
who virtually brought up Edward and his brothers and sister for their
remaining nursery years.[12]
Edward was kept under the strict
tutorship of Hansell until almost thirteen years old. Private tutors
taught him German and French.[13] Edward took the examination to enter
the Royal Naval College, Osborne, and began there in 1907. Hansell had
wanted Edward to enter school earlier, but the prince's father had
disagreed.[14] Following two years at Osborne College, which he did not
enjoy, Edward moved on to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. A course
of two years, followed by entry into the Royal Navy, was planned.[15]
Edward
automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay on 6 May
1910 when his father ascended the throne as George V on the death of
Edward VII. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a month
later on 23 June 1910, his 16th birthday.[16] Preparations for his
future as king began in earnest. He was withdrawn from his naval course
before his formal graduation, served as midshipman for three months
aboard the battleship Hindustan, then immediately entered Magdalen
College, Oxford, for which, in the opinion of his biographers, he was
underprepared intellectually.[15] A keen horseman, he learned how to
play polo with the university club.[17] He left Oxford after eight
terms, without any academic qualifications.[15]
Prince of Wales
Edward
was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a special ceremony at
Caernarfon Castle on 13 July 1911.[18] The investiture took place in
Wales, at the instigation of the Welsh politician David Lloyd George,
Constable of the Castle and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal
government.[19] Lloyd George invented a rather fanciful ceremony in the
style of a Welsh pageant, and coached Edward to speak a few words in
Welsh.[20]
Edward in August 1915, during the First World War
When
the First World War broke out in 1914, Edward had reached the minimum
age for active service and was keen to participate.[21] He had joined
the Grenadier Guards in June 1914, and although Edward was willing to
serve on the front lines, Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener
refused to allow it, citing the immense harm that would occur if the
heir apparent to the throne were captured by the enemy.[22] Despite
this, Edward witnessed trench warfare first-hand and visited the front
line as often as he could, for which he was awarded the Military Cross
in 1916. His role in the war, although limited, made him popular among
veterans of the conflict.[23] He undertook his first military flight in
1918, and later gained a pilot's licence.[24]
Edward's youngest
brother, Prince John, died at the age of 13 on 18 January 1919 after a
severe epileptic seizure.[25] Edward, who was 11 years older than John
and had hardly known him, saw his death as "little more than a
regrettable nuisance".[26] He wrote to his mistress of the time that
"[he had] told [her] all about that little brother, and how he was an
epileptic. [John]'s been practically shut up for the last two years
anyhow, so no one has ever seen him except the family, and then only
once or twice a year. This poor boy had become more of an animal than
anything else." He also wrote an insensitive letter to his mother which
has since been lost.[27] She did not reply, but he felt compelled to
write her an apology, in which he stated: "I feel such a cold hearted
and unsympathetic swine for writing all that I did ... No one can
realize more than you how little poor Johnnie meant to me who hardly
knew him ... I feel so much for you, darling Mama, who was his
mother."[26]
Edward in Ashburton, New Zealand, with returned servicemen, 1920
Throughout
the 1920s, Edward, as the Prince of Wales, represented his father at
home and abroad on many occasions. His rank, travels, good looks, and
unmarried status gained him much public attention. At the height of his
popularity, he was the most photographed celebrity of his time and he
set men's fashion.[28] During his 1924 visit to the United States, Men's
Wear magazine observed, "The average young man in America is more
interested in the clothes of the Prince of Wales than in any other
individual on earth."[29]
Edward visited poverty-stricken areas
of Britain,[30] and undertook 16 tours to various parts of the Empire
between 1919 and 1935. On a tour of Canada in 1919, he acquired the
Bedingfield ranch, near Pekisko, Alberta.[31] He escaped unharmed when
the train he was riding in during a tour of Australia was derailed
outside Perth in 1920.[32]
Edward and his staff wearing kimono (yukata) in Japan, 1922
His
November 1921 visit to India came during the non-cooperation movement
protests for Indian self-rule, and was marked by riots in Bombay. In
1929 Sir Alexander Leith, a leading Conservative in the north of
England, persuaded him to make a three-day visit to the County Durham
and Northumberland coalfields, where there was much unemployment.[33]
From January to April 1931, the Prince of Wales and his brother Prince
George travelled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) on a tour of South America,
steaming out on the ocean liner Oropesa,[34] and returning via Paris and
an Imperial Airways flight from Paris–Le Bourget Airport that landed
specially in Windsor Great Park.[35][36]
Though widely travelled,
Edward shared a widely held racial prejudice against foreigners and
many of the Empire's subjects, believing that whites were inherently
superior.[37] In 1920, on his visit to Australia, he wrote of Indigenous
Australians: "they are the most revolting form of living creatures I've
ever seen!! They are the lowest known form of human beings & are
the nearest thing to monkeys."[38]
In 1919, Edward agreed to be
president of the organising committee for the proposed British Empire
Exhibition at Wembley Park, Middlesex. He wished the Exhibition to
include "a great national sports ground", and so played a part in the
creation of Wembley Stadium.[39]
Romances
Portrait by Reginald Grenville Eves, c. 1920
By
1917, Edward liked to spend time partying in Paris while he was on
leave from his regiment on the Western Front. He was introduced to
Parisian courtesan Marguerite Alibert, with whom he became infatuated.
He wrote her candid letters, which she kept. After about a year, Edward
broke off the affair. In 1923, Alibert was acquitted in a spectacular
murder trial after she shot her husband in the Savoy Hotel. Desperate
efforts were made by the Royal Household to ensure that Edward's name
was not mentioned in connection with the trial or Alibert.[40]
Edward's
womanising and reckless behaviour during the 1920s and 1930s worried
Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, King George V, and those close to the
prince. George V was disappointed by his son's failure to settle down in
life, disgusted by his affairs with married women, and reluctant to see
him inherit the Crown. "After I am dead," George said, "the boy will
ruin himself in twelve months."[41]
George V favoured his second
son Albert ("Bertie") and Albert's daughter Elizabeth ("Lilibet"), later
King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II respectively. He told a courtier,
"I pray to God that my eldest son will never marry and have children,
and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the
throne."[42] In 1929, Time magazine reported that Edward teased Albert's
wife, also named Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), by calling her
"Queen Elizabeth". The magazine asked if "she did not sometimes wonder
how much truth there is in the story that he once said he would renounce
his rights upon the death of George V – which would make her nickname
come true".[43]
Thelma Furness and the Prince of Wales in 1932
In
1930, George V gave Edward the lease of Fort Belvedere in Windsor Great
Park.[44] There, he continued his relationships with a series of
married women, including Freda Dudley Ward and Lady Furness, the
American wife of a British peer, who introduced the prince to her friend
and fellow American Wallis Simpson. Simpson had divorced her first
husband, U.S. Navy officer Win Spencer, in 1927. Her second husband,
Ernest Simpson, was a British-American businessman. Wallis Simpson and
the Prince of Wales, it is generally accepted, became lovers, while Lady
Furness travelled abroad, although the prince adamantly insisted to his
father that he was not having an affair with her and that it was not
appropriate to describe her as his mistress.[45] Edward's relationship
with Simpson, however, further weakened his poor relationship with his
father. Although his parents met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in
1935,[46] they later refused to receive her.[47]
Edward's affair
with an American divorcée led to such grave concern that the couple were
followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch, who
examined in secret the nature of their relationship. An undated report
detailed a visit by the couple to an antique shop, where the proprietor
later noted "that the lady seemed to have POW [Prince of Wales]
completely under her thumb."[48] The prospect of having an American
divorcée with a questionable past having such sway over the heir
apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures.[49]
Reign
Edward VIII surrounded by heralds of the College of Arms prior to his only State Opening of Parliament, 3 November 1936
George
V died on 20 January 1936, and Edward ascended the throne as Edward
VIII. The next day, accompanied by Simpson, he broke with custom by
watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St
James's Palace.[50] He became the first monarch of the British Empire to
fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his
Accession Council.[13]
Edward caused unease in government circles
with actions that were interpreted as interference in political
matters. His comment during a tour of depressed villages in South Wales
that "something must be done"[13] for the unemployed coal miners was
seen as an attempt to guide government policy, though he had not
proposed any remedy or change in policy. Government ministers were
reluctant to send confidential documents and state papers to Fort
Belvedere, because it was clear that Edward was paying little attention
to them, and it was feared that Simpson and other house guests might
read them, improperly or inadvertently revealing government secrets.[51]
Edward's
unorthodox approach to his role also extended to the coinage that bore
his image. He broke with the tradition that the profile portrait of each
successive monarch faced in the direction opposite to that of his or
her predecessor. Edward insisted that he face left (as his father had
done),[52] to show the parting in his hair.[53] Only a handful of test
coins were struck before the abdication, and all are very rare.[54] When
George VI succeeded to the throne he also faced left to maintain the
tradition by suggesting that, had any further coins been minted
featuring Edward's portrait, they would have shown him facing right.[55]
Left-facing coinage portrait of Edward VIII
On
16 July 1936, Jerome Bannigan, alias George Andrew McMahon, produced a
loaded revolver as Edward rode on horseback at Constitution Hill, near
Buckingham Palace. Police spotted the gun and pounced on him; he was
quickly arrested. At Bannigan's trial, he alleged that "a foreign power"
had approached him to kill Edward, that he had informed MI5 of the
plan, and that he was merely seeing the plan through to help MI5 catch
the real culprits. The court rejected the claims and sent him to jail
for a year for "intent to alarm".[56] It is now thought that Bannigan
had indeed been in contact with MI5, but the veracity of the remainder
of his claims remains debatable.[57]
In August and September,
Edward and Simpson cruised the Eastern Mediterranean on the steam yacht
Nahlin. By October it was becoming clear that the new king planned to
marry Simpson, especially when divorce proceedings between the Simpsons
were brought at Ipswich Assizes.[58] Although gossip about his affair
was widespread in the United States, the British media kept silent
voluntarily, and the general public knew nothing until early
December.[59]
Abdication
Main article: Abdication of Edward VIII
Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson on their Mediterranean holiday, 1936
On
16 November 1936, Edward invited Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to
Buckingham Palace and expressed his desire to marry Simpson when she
became free to remarry. Baldwin informed him that his subjects would
deem the marriage morally unacceptable, largely because remarriage after
divorce was opposed by the Church of England, and the people would not
tolerate Simpson as queen.[60] As king, Edward was the titular head of
the Church, and the clergy expected him to support the Church's
teachings. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang, was vocal in
insisting that Edward must go.[61]
Edward proposed an
alternative solution of a morganatic marriage, in which he would remain
king but Simpson would not become queen consort. She would enjoy some
lesser title instead, and any children they might have would not inherit
the throne. This was supported by senior politician Winston Churchill
in principle, and some historians suggest that he conceived the
plan.[61] In any event, it was ultimately rejected by the British
Cabinet[62] as well as other Dominion governments.[63] The other
governments' views were sought pursuant to the Statute of Westminster
1931, which provided in part that "any alteration in the law touching
the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall
hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the
Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom."[64] The Prime
Ministers of Australia (Joseph Lyons), Canada (Mackenzie King) and South
Africa (J. B. M. Hertzog) made clear their opposition to the king
marrying a divorcée;[65] their Irish counterpart (Éamon de Valera)
expressed indifference and detachment, while the Prime Minister of New
Zealand (Michael Joseph Savage), having never heard of Simpson before,
vacillated in disbelief.[66] Faced with this opposition, Edward at first
responded that there were "not many people in Australia" and their
opinion did not matter.[67]
Cypher on a postbox erected during his short reign
Edward
informed Baldwin that he would abdicate if he could not marry Simpson.
Baldwin then presented Edward with three options: give up the idea of
marriage; marry against his ministers' wishes; or abdicate.[68] It was
clear that Edward was not prepared to give up Simpson, and he knew that
if he married against the advice of his ministers, he would cause the
government to resign, prompting a constitutional crisis.[69] He chose to
abdicate.[70]
Edward duly signed the instruments of
abdication[c] at Fort Belvedere on 10 December 1936 in the presence of
his younger brothers: Prince Albert, Duke of York, next in line for the
throne; Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince George, Duke of
Kent.[71] The document included these words: "declare my irrevocable
determination to renounce the throne for myself and for my descendants
and my desire that effect should be given to this instrument of
abdication immediately".[72] The next day, the last act of his reign was
the royal assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936.
As required by the Statute of Westminster, all the Dominions had already
consented to the abdication.[1]
On the night of 11 December
1936, Edward, now reverted to the title and style of a prince, explained
his decision to abdicate in a worldwide BBC radio broadcast. He said,
"I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility
and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the
help and support of the woman I love." He added that the "decision was
mine and mine alone ... The other person most nearly concerned has tried
up to the last to persuade me to take a different course".[73] Edward
departed Britain for Austria the following day; he was unable to join
Simpson until her divorce became absolute, several months later.[74] His
brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne as George VI.
Accordingly, George VI's elder daughter, Princess Elizabeth, became heir
presumptive.
Duke of Windsor
On 12 December 1936, at the
accession meeting of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, George VI
announced his intention to make his brother the "Duke of Windsor" with
the style of Royal Highness.[75] He wanted this to be the first act of
his reign, although the formal documents were not signed until 8 March
the following year. During the interim, Edward was known as the Duke of
Windsor. George VI's decision to create Edward a royal duke ensured that
he could neither stand for election to the British House of Commons nor
speak on political subjects in the House of Lords.[76]
Letters
Patent dated 27 May 1937 re-conferred the "title, style, or attribute of
Royal Highness" upon the Duke, but specifically stated that "his wife
and descendants, if any, shall not hold said title or attribute". Some
British ministers advised that the reconfirmation was unnecessary since
Edward had retained the style automatically, and further that Simpson
would automatically obtain the rank of wife of a prince with the style
Her Royal Highness; others maintained that he had lost all royal rank
and should no longer carry any royal title or style as an abdicated
king, and be referred to simply as "Mr Edward Windsor". On 14 April
1937, Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary
Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M.
Cooper, Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram, and himself:
We incline to the view that on his abdication the Duke of Windsor could
not have claimed the right to be described as a Royal Highness. In
other words, no reasonable objection could have been taken if the King
had decided that his exclusion from the lineal succession excluded him
from the right to this title as conferred by the existing Letters
Patent.
The question however has to be considered on the
basis of the fact that, for reasons which are readily understandable, he
with the express approval of His Majesty enjoys this title and has been
referred to as a Royal Highness on a formal occasion and in formal
documents. In the light of precedent it seems clear that the wife of a
Royal Highness enjoys the same title unless some appropriate express
step can be and is taken to deprive her of it.
We came to the
conclusion that the wife could not claim this right on any legal basis.
The right to use this style or title, in our view, is within the
prerogative of His Majesty and he has the power to regulate it by
Letters Patent generally or in particular circumstances.[77]
Château de Candé, the Windsors' wedding venue
The
Duke married Simpson, who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis
Warfield (her birth surname), in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937, at
Château de Candé, near Tours, France. When the Church of England refused
to sanction the union, a County Durham clergyman, the Reverend Robert
Anderson Jardine (Vicar of St Paul's, Darlington), offered to perform
the ceremony, and the Duke accepted. George VI forbade members of the
royal family to attend,[78] to the lasting resentment of the Duke and
Duchess of Windsor. Edward had particularly wanted his brothers the
dukes of Gloucester and Kent and his second cousin Lord Louis
Mountbatten to attend the ceremony.[79]
The denial of the style
Royal Highness to the Duchess of Windsor caused further conflict, as did
the financial settlement. The Government declined to include the Duke
or Duchess on the Civil List, and the Duke's allowance was paid
personally by George VI. The Duke compromised his position with his
brother by concealing the extent of his financial worth when they
informally agreed on the amount of the allowance. Edward's wealth had
accumulated from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall paid to him as
Prince of Wales and ordinarily at the disposal of an incoming king.
George VI also paid Edward for Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle,
which were Edward's personal property, inherited from his father and
thus did not automatically pass to George VI on his accession.[80]
Edward received approximately £300,000 (equivalent to between £21
million and £140 million in 2021[81]) for both residences which was paid
to him in yearly instalments. In the early days of George VI's reign
the Duke telephoned daily, importuning for money and urging that the
Duchess be granted the style of Royal Highness, until the harassed king
ordered that the calls not be put through.[82]
Relations between
the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the royal family were strained for
decades. The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a
year or two of exile in France. King George VI (with the support of
Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth) threatened to cut off Edward's
allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation.[80] Edward
became embittered against his mother, Queen Mary, writing to her in
1939: "[your last letter][d] destroy[ed] the last vestige of feeling I
had left for you ... [and has] made further normal correspondence
between us impossible."[83]
Duke and Duchess of Windsor in Germany, October 1937
Edward reviewing SS guards with Robert Ley
The Duke and Duchess meeting Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden
In
October 1937, the Duke and Duchess visited Nazi Germany, against the
advice of the British government, and met Adolf Hitler at his Berghof
retreat in Bavaria. The visit was much publicised by the German media.
During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes.[84] In Germany, "they
were treated like royalty ... members of the aristocracy would bow and
curtsy towards her, and she was treated with all the dignity and status
that the duke always wanted", according to royal biographer Andrew
Morton in a 2016 BBC interview.[85]
The former Austrian
ambassador, Count Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein, who was
also a second cousin once removed and friend of George V, believed that
Edward favoured German fascism as a bulwark against communism, and even
that he initially favoured an alliance with Germany.[86] According to
the Duke of Windsor, the experience of "the unending scenes of
horror"[87] during the First World War led him to support appeasement.
Hitler considered Edward to be friendly towards Germany and thought that
Anglo-German relations could have been improved through Edward if it
were not for the abdication. Albert Speer quoted Hitler directly: "I am
certain through him permanent friendly relations could have been
achieved. If he had stayed, everything would have been different. His
abdication was a severe loss for us."[88] The Duke and Duchess settled
in Paris, leasing a mansion in Boulevard Suchet [fr] from late 1938.[89]
Second World War
In
May 1939, the Duke was commissioned by NBC to give a radio
broadcast[90] (his first since abdicating) during a visit to the First
World War battlefields of Verdun. In it he appealed for peace, saying "I
am deeply conscious of the presence of the great company of the dead,
and I am convinced that could they make their voices heard they would be
with me in what I am about to say. I speak simply as a soldier of the
Last War whose most earnest prayer it is that such cruel and destructive
madness shall never again overtake mankind. There is no land whose
people want war." The broadcast was heard across the world by
millions.[91][92] It was widely regarded as supporting appeasement,[93]
and the BBC refused to broadcast it.[90] It was broadcast outside the
United States on shortwave radio[94] and was reported in full by British
broadsheet newspapers.[95] On the outbreak of the Second World War in
September 1939, the Duke and Duchess were brought back to Britain by
Louis Mountbatten on board HMS Kelly, and Edward, although he held the
rank of field marshal, was made a major-general attached to the British
Military Mission in France.[13] In February 1940, the German ambassador
in The Hague, Count Julius von Zech-Burkersroda, claimed that the Duke
had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium,[96] which
the Duke later denied.[97] When Germany invaded the north of France in
May 1940, the Windsors fled south, first to Biarritz, then in June to
Francoist Spain. In July the pair moved to Portugal, where they lived at
first in the home of Ricardo Espírito Santo, a Portuguese banker with
both British and German contacts.[98] Under the code name Operation
Willi, Nazi agents, principally Walter Schellenberg, plotted
unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal and return to
Spain, kidnapping him if necessary.[99] Lord Caldecote wrote a warning
to Winston Churchill, who by this point was prime minister, that "[the
Duke] is well-known to be pro-Nazi and he may become a centre of
intrigue."[100] Churchill threatened the Duke with a court-martial if he
did not return to British soil.[101]
In July 1940, Edward was
appointed governor of the Bahamas. The Duke and Duchess left Lisbon on 1
August aboard the American Export Lines steamship Excalibur, which was
specially diverted from its usual direct course to New York City so that
they could be dropped off at Bermuda on the 9th.[102] They left Bermuda
for Nassau on the Canadian National Steamship Company vessel Lady
Somers on 15 August, arriving two days later.[103] The Duke did not
enjoy being governor and privately referred to the islands as "a
third-class British colony".[104] The British Foreign Office strenuously
objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to cruise aboard a yacht
belonging to Swedish magnate Axel Wenner-Gren, whom British and American
intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe
commander Hermann Göring.[105] The Duke was praised for his efforts to
combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the
Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire. He said of
Étienne Dupuch, the editor of the Nassau Daily Tribune: "It must be
remembered that Dupuch is more than half Negro, and due to the peculiar
mentality of this Race, they seem unable to rise to prominence without
losing their equilibrium."[106] He was praised, even by Dupuch, for his
resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in 1942, even though
he blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists" and "men of
Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for
obtaining a deferment of draft".[107] He resigned from the post on 16
March 1945.[13]
Many historians have suggested that Adolf Hitler
was prepared to reinstate Edward as king in the hope of establishing a
fascist puppet government in Britain after Operation Sea Lion.[108] It
is widely believed that the Duke and Duchess sympathised with fascism
before and during the Second World War, and were moved to the Bahamas to
minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings. In 1940 he said:
"In the past 10 years Germany has totally reorganised the order of its
society ... Countries which were unwilling to accept such a
reorganisation of society and its concomitant sacrifices should direct
their policies accordingly."[109] During the occupation of France, the
Duke asked the German Wehrmacht forces to place guards at his Paris and
Riviera homes; they did so.[110] In December 1940, the Duke gave Fulton
Oursler of Liberty magazine an interview at Government House in Nassau.
Oursler conveyed its content to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a
private meeting at the White House on 23 December 1940.[111] The
interview was published on 22 March 1941 and in it the Duke was reported
to have said that "Hitler was the right and logical leader of the
German people" and that the time was coming for President Roosevelt to
mediate a peace settlement. The Duke protested that he had been
misquoted and misinterpreted.[112]
The Allies became sufficiently
disturbed by German plots revolving around the Duke that President
Roosevelt ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and Duchess when they
visited Palm Beach, Florida, in April 1941. Duke Carl Alexander of
Württemberg (then a monk in an American monastery) had told the Federal
Bureau of Investigation that the Duchess had slept with the German
ambassador in London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, in 1936; had remained in
constant contact with him; and had continued to leak secrets.[113]
Author
Charles Higham claimed that Anthony Blunt, an MI5 agent and Soviet spy,
acting on orders from the British royal family, made a successful
secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Allied-occupied Germany towards
the end of the war to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of
Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis.[114] What is certain
is that George VI sent the Royal Librarian, Owen Morshead, accompanied
by Blunt, then working part-time in the Royal Library as well as for
British intelligence, to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to secure papers
relating to the German Empress Victoria, the eldest child of Queen
Victoria. Looters had stolen part of the castle's archive, including
surviving letters between daughter and mother, as well as other
valuables, some of which were recovered in Chicago after the war. The
papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt, and those returned by the American
authorities from Chicago, were deposited in the Royal Archives.[115] In
the late 1950s, documents recovered by U.S. troops in Marburg, Germany,
in May 1945, since titled the Marburg Files, were published following
more than a decade of suppression, enhancing theories of the Duke's
sympathies for Nazi ideologies.[116][117]
After the war, the Duke
admitted in his memoirs that he admired the Germans, but he denied
being pro-Nazi. Of Hitler he wrote: "[the] Führer struck me as a
somewhat ridiculous figure, with his theatrical posturings and his
bombastic pretensions."[118] In the 1950s, journalist Frank Giles heard
the Duke blame British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden for helping to
"precipitate the war through his treatment of Mussolini ... that's what
[Eden] did, he helped to bring on the war ... and of course Roosevelt
and the Jews".[119] During the 1960s the Duke said privately to a
friend, Patrick Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross, "I never thought Hitler was
such a bad chap."[120]
Later life
The Duke of Windsor in 1945
Clementine (far left) and Winston Churchill with the Duke of Windsor on the French Riviera in 1948
At
the end of the war, the couple returned to France and spent the
remainder of their lives essentially in retirement as the Duke never
held another official role. Correspondence between the Duke and Kenneth
de Courcy, dated between 1946 and 1949, emerged in a U.S. library in
2009. The letters suggest a scheme where the Duke would return to
England and place himself in a position for a possible regency. The
health of George VI was failing and de Courcy was concerned about the
influence of the Mountbatten family over the young Princess Elizabeth.
De Courcy suggested the Duke buy a working agricultural estate within an
easy drive of London in order to gain favour with the British public
and make himself available should the King become incapacitated. The
Duke, however, hesitated and the King recovered from his surgery.[121]
The
Duke's allowance was supplemented by government favours and illegal
currency trading.[13][122][123] The City of Paris provided the Duke with
a house at 4 route du Champ d'Entraînement, on the Neuilly-sur-Seine
side of the Bois de Boulogne, for a nominal rent.[124] The French
government also exempted him from paying income tax,[122][125] and the
couple were able to buy goods duty-free through the British embassy and
the military commissary.[125] In 1952, they bought and renovated a
weekend country retreat, Le Moulin de la Tuilerie at Gif-sur-Yvette, the
only property the couple ever owned themselves.[126] In 1951, the Duke
had produced a ghost-written memoir, A King's Story, in which he
expressed disagreement with liberal politics.[19] The royalties from the
book added to their income.[122]
The Duke and Duchess
effectively took on the role of celebrities and were regarded as part of
café society in the 1950s and 1960s. They hosted parties and shuttled
between Paris and New York; Gore Vidal, who met the Windsors socially,
reported on the vacuity of the Duke's conversation.[127] The couple
doted on the pug dogs they kept.[128]
In June 1953, instead of
attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, his niece, in London,
the Duke and Duchess watched the ceremony on television in Paris. The
Duke said that it was contrary to precedent for a Sovereign or former
Sovereign to attend any coronation of another. He was paid to write
articles on the ceremony for the Sunday Express and Woman's Home
Companion, as well as a short book, The Crown and the People,
1902–1953.[129]
U.S. President Richard Nixon and the Duke and Duchess of Windsor in 1970
In
1955, they visited President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House.
The couple appeared on Edward R. Murrow's television-interview show
Person to Person in 1956,[130] and in a 50-minute BBC television
interview in 1970. On 4 April of that year President Richard Nixon
invited them as guests of honour to a dinner at the White House with
Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, Charles Lindbergh, Alice Roosevelt
Longworth, Arnold Palmer, George H. W. Bush, and Frank Borman.[131][132]
The
royal family never fully accepted the Duchess. Queen Mary refused to
receive her formally. However, Edward sometimes met his mother and his
brother, George VI; he attended George's funeral in 1952. Queen Mary
remained angry with Edward and indignant over his marriage to Wallis:
"To give up all this for that", she said.[133] In 1965, the Duke and
Duchess returned to London. They were visited by Elizabeth II, his
sister-in-law Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, and his sister Mary,
Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood. A week later, the Princess
Royal died, and they attended her memorial service. In 1967, they joined
the royal family for the centenary of Queen Mary's birth. The last
royal ceremony the Duke attended was the funeral of Princess Marina in
1968.[134] He declined an invitation from Elizabeth II to attend the
investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969, replying that Prince Charles
would not want his "aged great-uncle" there.[135]
In the 1960s,
the Duke's health deteriorated. Michael E. DeBakey operated on him in
Houston for an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta in December 1964, and Sir
Stewart Duke-Elder treated a detached retina in his left eye in
February 1965. In late 1971, the Duke, who was a smoker from an early
age, was diagnosed with throat cancer and underwent cobalt therapy. On
18 May 1972, Queen Elizabeth II visited the Duke and Duchess of Windsor
while on a state visit to France; she spoke with the Duke for fifteen
minutes, but only the Duchess appeared with the royal party for a
photocall as the Duke was too ill.[136]
Death and legacy
Edward's grave at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore
On
28 May 1972, ten days after the Queen's visit, the Duke died at his
home in Paris, less than a month before his 78th birthday. His body was
returned to Britain, lying in state at St George's Chapel, Windsor
Castle. The funeral service took place in the chapel on 5 June in the
presence of the Queen, the royal family, and the Duchess of Windsor, who
stayed at Buckingham Palace during her visit. He was buried in the
Royal Burial Ground behind the Royal Mausoleum of Queen Victoria and
Prince Albert at Frogmore.[137] Until a 1965 agreement with the Queen,
the Duke and Duchess had planned for a burial in a cemetery plot they
had purchased at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, where the Duchess's
father was interred.[138] Frail, and suffering increasingly from
dementia, the Duchess died in 1986, and was buried alongside her
husband.[139]
In the view of historians, such as Philip
Williamson writing in 2007, the popular perception in the 21st century
that the abdication was driven by politics rather than religious
morality is false and arises because divorce has become much more common
and socially acceptable. To modern sensibilities, the religious
restrictions that prevented Edward from continuing as king while
planning to marry Simpson "seem, wrongly, to provide insufficient
explanation" for his abdication.[140]
Honours and arms
Royal Standard of the Duke of Windsor
Honours
Portrait of Edward in the robes of the Order of the Garter by Arthur Stockdale Cope, 1912
British Commonwealth and Empire honours
KG: Royal Knight of the Garter, 1910[141]
MC: Military Cross, 1916[142]
GCMG: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 1917[141]
GBE: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire, 1917[141]
ADC: Personal aide-de-camp, 3 June 1919[143]
GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 1920[141]
PC: Privy Counsellor, (United Kingdom) 1920[141]
GCSI: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 1921[141]
GCIE: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire, 1921[141]
Royal Victorian Chain, 1921[141]
KT: Extra Knight of the Thistle, 1922[141]
GCStJ: Bailiff Grand Cross of St John, 12 June 1926[144]
KStJ: Knight of Justice of St John, 2 June 1917[145]
KP: Knight of St Patrick, 1927[141]
PC: Privy Councillor of Canada, 1927[146]
GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, 1936[141]
ISO: Companion of the Imperial Service Order, 23 June 1910[147]
FRS: Royal Fellow of the Royal Society[141]
Foreign honours
Grand Duchy of Hesse Knight of the Golden Lion, 23 June 1911[148]
Spain Knight of the Golden Fleece, 22 June 1912[149]
French Third Republic Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, August 1912[150]
Denmark Knight of the Elephant, 17 March 1914[151]
Norway Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 6 April 1914[152]
Kingdom of Italy Knight of the Annunciation, 21 June 1915[153]
French Third Republic Croix de Guerre, 1915
Russian Empire Knight of St. George, 3rd Class, 1916[154]
Thailand Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 16 August 1917[155]
Kingdom of Romania Order of Michael the Brave, 1st Class, 1918[154]
Kingdom of Italy War Merit Cross, 1919
Kingdom of Egypt Grand Cordon of the Order of Mohamed Ali, 1922[154]
Sweden Knight of the Seraphim, 12 November 1923[156]
Kingdom of Romania Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1924[154]
Chile Order of Merit, 1st Class, 1925[154]
Bolivia Grand Cross of the Condor of the Andes, 1931[154]
Peru Grand Cross of the Sun of Peru, 1931[154]
Portugal Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders, 25 April 1931 – during his visit to Lisbon[157]
Brazil Grand Cross of the Southern Cross, 1933[154]
San Marino Grand Cross of St. Agatha, 1935[154]
Military ranks
22 June 1911: Midshipman, Royal Navy[158]
17 March 1913: Lieutenant, Royal Navy[158]
18 November 1914: Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, British Army. (First World War, Flanders and Italy)[158]
10 March 1916: Captain, British Army[158]
1918: Temporary Major, British Army[158]
15 April 1919: Colonel, British Army[158]
8 July 1919: Captain, Royal Navy[158]
5 December 1922: Group Captain, Royal Air Force[158][159]
1 September 1930: Vice-Admiral, Royal Navy; Lieutenant-General, British Army;[160] Air Marshal, Royal Air Force[161]
1 January 1935: Admiral, Royal Navy; General, British Army; Air Chief Marshal, Royal Air Force[162]
21 January 1936: Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Navy; Field Marshal, British Army; Marshal of the Royal Air Force[158]
3 September 1939: Major-General, British Army[163]
Arms
Edward's
coat of arms as the Prince of Wales was the royal coat of arms of the
United Kingdom, differenced with a label of three points argent, with an
inescutcheon representing Wales surmounted by a coronet (identical to
those of Charles III when he was Prince of Wales). As Sovereign, he bore
the royal arms undifferenced. After his abdication, he used the arms
again differenced by a label of three points argent, but this time with
the centre point bearing an imperial crown.[164]
Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165]
Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165]
Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom
Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom
Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom
Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom
Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor
Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor
Ancestry
Ancestors of Edward VIII[166]
See also
Cultural depictions of Edward VIII of the United Kingdom
Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII
List of prime ministers of Edward VIII
Notes
The
instrument of abdication was signed on 10 December, and given
legislative form by His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 the
following day. The parliament of the Union of South Africa
retroactively approved the abdication with effect from 10 December, and
the Irish Free State recognised the abdication on 12 December.[1]
His
twelve godparents were: Queen Victoria (his paternal
great-grandmother); the King and Queen of Denmark (his paternal
great-grandparents, for whom his maternal uncle Prince Adolphus of Teck
and his paternal aunt the Duchess of Fife stood proxy); the King of
Württemberg (his mother's distant cousin, for whom his granduncle the
Duke of Connaught stood proxy); the Queen of Greece (his grandaunt, for
whom his paternal aunt Princess Victoria of Wales stood proxy); the Duke
of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (his granduncle, for whom Prince Louis of
Battenberg stood proxy); the Prince and Princess of Wales (his paternal
grandparents); the Tsarevich (his father's cousin); the Duke of
Cambridge (his maternal granduncle and Queen Victoria's cousin); and the
Duke and Duchess of Teck (his maternal grandparents).[3]
There were
fifteen separate copies – one for each Dominion, the Irish Free State,
India, the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Prime Minister,
among others.[71]
She had asked Alec Hardinge to write to the Duke explaining that he could not be invited to his father's memorial.[83]
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Bibliography
Bloch, Michael (1982). The Duke of Windsor's War. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77947-8.
Bradford, Sarah (1989). King George VI. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-79667-4.
Donaldson, Frances (1974). Edward VIII. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-76787-9.
Godfrey, Rupert (editor) (1998). Letters From a Prince: Edward to Mrs
Freda Dudley Ward 1918–1921. Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 0-7515-2590-1.
Parker, John (1988). King of Fools. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-02598-X.
Roberts, Andrew; edited by Antonia Fraser (2000). The House of Windsor. London: Cassell and Co. ISBN 0-304-35406-6.
Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John (1958). King George VI. London: Macmillan.
Williams, Susan (2003). The People's King: The True Story of the Abdication. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9573-2.
Windsor, The Duke of (1951). A King's Story. London: Cassell and Co.
Ziegler, Philip (1991). King Edward VIII: The official biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-57730-2.
External links
Edward VIII
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Edward VIII
House of Windsor
Cadet branch of the House of Wettin
Born: 23 June 1894 Died: 28 May 1972
Regnal titles
Preceded by
George V
King of the United Kingdom and the
British Dominions; Emperor of India
20 January – 11 December 1936 Succeeded by
George VI
British royalty
Preceded by
George (V)
Prince of Wales
Duke of Cornwall; Duke of Rothesay
1910–1936 Vacant
Title next held by
Charles (III)
Government offices
Preceded by
Sir Charles Dundas
Governor of the Bahamas
1940–1945 Succeeded by
Sir William Lindsay Murphy
Honorary titles
Vacant
Title last held by
The Prince of Wales Grand Master of the Order of St Michael and St George
1917–1936 Succeeded by
The Earl of Athlone
New title Grand Master of the Order of the British Empire
1917–1936 Succeeded by
Queen Mary
Air Commodore-in-Chief of the Auxiliary Air Force
1932–1936 Succeeded by
King George VI
Academic offices
New office Chancellor of the University of Cape Town
1918–1936 Succeeded by
Jan Smuts
Articles and topics related to Edward VIII
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Abdication of Edward VIII
Edward VIII Wallis Simpson
People
Royal Family
Prince Albert (Edward VIII's brother, later George VI) Prince Henry
(Edward VIII's brother) Prince George (Edward VIII's brother) Queen Mary
(Edward VIII's mother)
Officials
Stanley Baldwin
(Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) Clement Attlee (Leader of the
Opposition in the United Kingdom) Winston Churchill (MP and supporter of
Edward VIII) William Lyon Mackenzie King (Prime Minister of Canada)
Joseph Lyons (Prime Minister of Australia) Michael Joseph Savage (Prime
Minister of New Zealand) J. B. M. Hertzog (Prime Minister of South
Africa) Éamon de Valera (President of the Executive Council of the Irish
Free State) Stanley Bruce (High Commissioner of Australia to the United
Kingdom)
Clergy
Cosmo Gordon Lang (Archbishop of Canterbury) Alfred Blunt (Bishop of Bradford)
Other
Alec Hardinge (Edward VIII's private secretary) Alan Lascelles (Edward
VIII's assistant private secretary) Walter Monckton (advisor to Edward
VIII) John Theodore Goddard (Mrs Simpson's solicitor) Ernest Simpson
(Mrs Simpson's husband)
Legal documents
His
Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 (United Kingdom) Executive
Authority (External Relations) Act 1936 (Ireland) His Majesty King
Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937 (South Africa) Succession to
the Throne Act, 1937 (Canada)
Cultural depictions
Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978) The Woman He Loved (1988) Bertie and
Elizabeth (2002) Wallis & Edward (2005) The King's Speech (2010)
W.E. (2012) The Crown (S1 E3): "Windsor" (2016)
Related events
Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII 1937 tour of Germany by the Duke
and Duchess of Windsor Funeral of Edward, Duke of Windsor
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English, Scottish and British monarchs
Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603
Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred
Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Sweyn
Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold I Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold
Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda
Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Henry III Edward I Edward
II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V
Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip
Elizabeth I
Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I
Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I
Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm
II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar
Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III
Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III
James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI
Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603
James I and VI Charles I Charles II James II and VII William III and II and Mary II Anne
British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707
Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward
VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III
Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.
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Emperors of India
Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI
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Monarchy in Canada
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vte
British princes
The
generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of
the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family.
1st generation
King George II
2nd generation
Frederick, Prince of Wales Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland
3rd generation
King George III Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany Prince William
Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland
and Strathearn Prince Frederick
4th generation
King George IV Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany King William IV
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn King Ernest Augustus of
Hanover Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex Prince Adolphus, Duke
of Cambridge Prince Octavius Prince Alfred Prince William Frederick,
Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh
5th generation
Prince Albert1 King George V of Hanover Prince George, Duke of Cambridge
6th generation
King Edward VII Prince Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince
Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany
Prince Ernest Augustus
7th generation
Prince Albert
Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale King George V Prince Alexander
John of Wales Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince
Arthur of Connaught Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany and of
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince George William of Hanover Prince Christian
of Hanover Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick
8th generation
King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester Prince
George, Duke of Kent Prince John Alastair, 2nd Duke of Connaught and
Strathearn Johann Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Prince Hubertus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Ernest Augustus of
Hanover Prince George William of Hanover
9th generation
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh2 Prince William of Gloucester Prince
Richard, Duke of Gloucester Prince Edward, Duke of Kent Prince Michael
of Kent
10th generation
King Charles III Prince Andrew, Duke of York Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar
11th generation
William, Prince of Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn3
12th generation
Prince George of Wales Prince Louis of Wales Archie Mountbatten-Windsor3
1
Not a British prince by birth, but created Prince Consort. 2 Not a
British prince by birth, but created a Prince of the United Kingdom. 3
Status debatable; see James, Viscount Severn#Titles and styles and
Archie Mountbatten-Windsor#Title and succession for details.
Princes that lost their title and status or did not use the title are shown in italics.
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Princes of Wales
Edward (1301–1307) Edward (1343–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry
(1399–1413) Edward (1454–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward
(1471–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509)
Edward (1537–1547) Henry (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles
(1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1729–1751) George
(1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George
(1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William
(2022–present)
See also: Principality of Wales
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Dukes of Cornwall
Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry
(1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward
(1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509)
Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles
(1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727)
Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901)
George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William
(2022–present)
Cornwall Portal
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Dukes of Rothesay
David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437)
James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510)
James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick
(1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649)
James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George
(1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward
(1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present)
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Princes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Forefather
Duke Francis I*
1st generation
Duke Ernest I* Prince Ferdinand* King Leopold I of the Belgians*
2nd generation
Ducal
Duke Ernest II* Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom*
Koháry
King Ferdinand II of Portugal and the Algarves* Prince August* Prince Leopold*
Belgium
Crown Prince Louis Philippe King Leopold II Prince Philippe
3rd generation
United Kingdom
King Edward VII Duke Alfred I Prince Arthur Prince Leopold
Portugal
King Pedro V King Luís I Infante João Infante Fernando Infante Augusto
Koháry
Prince Philipp Prince Ludwig August Tsar Ferdinand I of the Bulgarians
Belgium
Prince Leopold Prince Baudouin King Albert I
4th generation
United Kingdom
Prince Albert Victor King George V Hereditary Prince Alfred Prince Arthur Duke Charles Edward I
Portugal
King Carlos I Infante Afonso
Koháry
Prince Leopold Clement Prince Pedro Augusto Prince August Leopold Prince Joseph Ferdinand Prince Ludwig Gaston
Bulgaria
Tsar Boris III Prince Kiril
Belgium
King Leopold III Prince Charles
5th generation
United Kingdom
King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry Prince George Prince John Prince Alastair
Ducal
Hereditary Prince Johann Leopold Prince Hubertus Prince Friedrich Josias
Portugal
Prince Luís Filipe King Manuel II
Koháry
Prince Rainer Prince Philipp
Bulgaria
Tsar Simeon II
Belgium
King Baudouin I King Albert II Prince Alexandre
6th generation
Ducal
Prince Andreas
Koháry
Prince Johannes Heinrich
Bulgaria
Prince Kardam Prince Kyril
Belgium
King Philippe I Prince Laurent
7th generation
Bulgaria
Prince Boris
Belgium
Prince Gabriel Prince Emmanuel
*Titled as Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld before 11 February 1826
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Grand Masters of the Order of St Michael and St George
Sir Thomas Maitland The Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince
George, Duke of Cambridge The Prince George, Prince of Wales Vacant The
Prince Edward, Prince of Wales Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone
Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of
Tunis Prince Edward, Duke of Kent
StMichaelandStGeorgeInsignia.jpg
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Heads of State of South Africa
Monarch (1910–1961)
George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II
Red Ensign of South Africa (1912–1951).svg
Flag of South Africa (1928–1994).svg
Flag of South Africa.svg
State President (1961–1994)
(under Apartheid)
Charles Robberts Swart Eben Dönges† Tom Naudé* Jim Fouché Jan de Klerk*
Nico Diederichs† Marais Viljoen* John Vorster Marais Viljoen P. W.
Botha F. W. de Klerk
President (from 1994)
(post-Apartheid)
Nelson Mandela Thabo Mbeki Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri* Kgalema Motlanthe Jacob Zuma Cyril Ramaphosa
†Died in office *Acting President
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
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