Royal Air Force
British air force
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Also known as: RAF
Britannica Editors Nov. 13, 2025 •History
News • Britain sends RAF specialists to help Belgium combat disruptive drones • Nov. 10, 2025, 3:20 AM ET (The Guardian)
Royal Air Force (RAF), youngest of the three British armed services, charged with the air defense of the United Kingdom and the fulfillment of international defense commitments. It is the world’s oldest independent air force.
Origins of the Royal Air Force
Military aviation in the United Kingdom dates from 1878, when a series of experiments with balloons was carried out at Woolwich Arsenal in London. On April 1, 1911, an air battalion of the Royal Engineers was formed, consisting of one balloon and one airplane company. Its headquarters was at South Farnborough, Hampshire, where the balloon factory was located.
Meanwhile, in February 1911 the Admiralty had allowed four naval officers to take a course of flying instruction on airplanes at the Royal Aero Club grounds at Eastchurch, Kent, and in December of that year the first naval flying school was formed there. On May 13, 1912, a combined Royal Flying Corps (RFC) was formed, with naval and military wings and a Central Flying School at Upavon on Salisbury Plain. The specialized aviation requirements of the Royal Navy made it appear, however, that a separate organization was desirable, and on July 1, 1914, the naval wing of the RFC became the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS), with the land-based wing retaining the title Royal Flying Corps.
By this point, the balloon factory had been renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory, and it undertook the design and manufacture of airframes and engines. A series of aircraft with the general designation “BE” (Blériot Experimental) resulted and did excellent service in the earlier stages of World War I. A number of private British designers also entered the field, and most of the aircraft in use in the British and Empire Air Services in the latter half of the war were products of British factories.
World War I
Royal Air Force Sopwith Camel
Royal Air Force Sopwith CamelSopwith Camel, one of the most effective British fighter aircraft of World War I.
Upon the outbreak of World War I, the RFC, possessing 179 airplanes and 1,244 officers and men, sent an aircraft park and four squadrons to France on August 13, 1914. Air-to-ground wireless telegraphy allowed aircraft to be used for reconnaissance and spotting for artillery. Soon, however, specialized types of aircraft were produced for fighting, bombing, reconnaissance, and aerial photography. Speeds increased from 60 to 150 miles (97 to 241 km) per hour and engine power from 70 to more than 400 horsepower before the end of the war.
World War I military aircraft
World War I military aircraftThe F.B.5 Gunbus, by the British company Vickers, was the first production aircraft purpose-built with air-to-air weaponry. The Gunbus was configured as a “pusher” (the propeller was located behind the engine), as engineers had not yet developed a synchronizing device that would allow a machine gun's bullets to pass between the blades of a spinning propeller.
The growth and versatility of the air forces had demonstrated that air power had a separate and essential role to play in modern warfare, independent of, but in closest cooperation with, the older services. Practical recognition of this fact was given, shortly before the end of the war, by the creation of the Royal Air Force. On April 1, 1918, the RNAS and RFC were absorbed into the RAF, which took its place beside the navy and army as a separate service with its own ministry under a secretary of state for air. The RAF carried out its first independent operations during the closing months of the war in a series of strategic bombardments of targets in France and Germany by a specialized force of heavy bombers. The strength of the RAF in November 1918 was nearly 291,000 officers and airmen. It possessed 200 operational squadrons and nearly the same number of training squadrons, a total of 22,647 aircraft.
The interwar years
The peacetime pattern for the RAF provided for 33 squadrons, of which 12 would be based in the United Kingdom and 21 overseas. Since the prospect of another European war was regarded as remote, the squadrons at home served as a strategic reserve for overseas reinforcement and as service training units for personnel prior to their posting to squadrons abroad. The preponderance in numbers of the overseas squadrons resulted largely from the system evolved by the air staff and adopted by the government of making use of air power as an economical method of maintaining order throughout the British Empire. During the 15 years from 1920 onward, relatively small air forces repeatedly crushed incipient uprisings in Somaliland, in the Aden protectorate, and on the northwest frontier of India. In Iraq, between 1920 and 1932, the RAF exercised military control of the country with a force of eight squadrons of aircraft and two or three companies of armoured cars.
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To train permanent officers for the flying branch of the service, a cadet college was established at Cranwell, Lincolnshire, in 1920. The RAF staff college was opened in 1922 at Andover, Hampshire. The need for trained mechanics, possessed of the various skills peculiar to a military aviation service, was met by the School of Technical Training at Halton, Buckinghamshire, where boys 15 years of age were received as apprentices for a three-year course in their chosen trade. In order to ensure a constant supply of pilots and to build up a reserve, a short-service commission scheme was introduced in 1919. Young men were commissioned for four years (subsequently increased to six), of which the first year was spent in training, followed by service in active squadrons. At the conclusion of their engagement, they passed to the reserve of air force officers for a further period of four years. Some years later a medium-service scheme, with 10 years’ regular service followed by a period in the reserve, was introduced as an alternative. In 1925 an organization known as the Auxiliary Air Force was formed. Its members gave part-time service, undergoing flying and technical training on weekends and during holiday periods. By the outbreak of World War II, this force possessed a number of highly trained fighter squadrons, which did such good service throughout the war that the prefix “royal” was added to its title at the end of hostilities.
By 1923 the prospects of permanent peace in Europe appeared less certain, and a substantial increase in air defense expenditure was decided upon. The first steps toward implementing this decision were taken in 1925, when a new command, the Air Defense of Great Britain, was set up, with a proposed ultimate strength of 52 squadrons of fighters and bombers stationed in the United Kingdom. There were, however, delays in the buildup of the force, and eight years later, when Adolf Hitler attained power in Germany, the RAF possessed only 87 squadrons, regular and auxiliary, at home and overseas. With the rapid deterioration of the international outlook in Europe, expansion was greatly increased and accelerated. From 1936 onward the aircraft industry received powerful financial aid from the government to enable additional factories to be built to increase production, while many automobile firms turned their works over to the construction of complete aircraft or their components. To provide the crews for the additional aircraft, the RAF Volunteer Reserve and the Civil Air Guard were formed to give training at civilian schools and flying clubs. University air squadrons, the first of which had been formed soon after World War I to teach undergraduates to fly and to encourage them to join the RAF as regular officers, greatly expanded their activities. The Auxiliary Air Force, meanwhile, formed captive balloon units to provide protective barrages for heavily populated areas and especially vulnerable points. A part-time Observer Corps (later the Royal Observer Corps) had been formed some years earlier to give warning of impending attack by enemy aircraft and was now considerably expanded.
The Women’s Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF), a re-creation of the Women’s Royal Air Force (WRAF) of World War I, came into being as a separate service in June 1939, out of the Auxiliary Territorial Service, an army-sponsored organization which had been formed a year earlier and had recruited special air force companies. (In 1949 the WAAF became the WRAF once more.) Finally, though this did not occur until 1941, the Air Training Corps (ATC) replaced the air defense cadet units and the school air cadet corps of the immediate prewar years. In it boys received some preliminary air force training with a view to their eventual entry into the RAF.
World War II and the Battle of Britain
Supermarine Spitfire
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Supermarine SpitfireSupermarine Spitfire, Britain's premier fighter plane from 1938 through World War II.
Wellington bomber
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Wellington bomberVickers Wellington, the main British bomber in the early part of World War II. After being supplanted by the Avro Lancaster, the Wellington served in mine laying, submarine hunting, photo reconnaissance, and other roles throughout the war.
World War II-era jet flying.3 of 3
From the Archives: What Was the Battle of Britain?Revisit the Battle of Britain's with 1963 documentary The Second World War: Triumph of the Axis.
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At the outbreak of war on September 3, 1939, the first-line strength of the RAF in the United Kingdom was about 2,000 aircraft. These were grouped as follows: Fighter Command, concerned with home defense, with a small component detached to the expeditionary force in France until that country was overrun in June 1940; Bomber Command, for offensive action in Europe; and Coastal Command, for the protection of maritime routes, under the operational direction of the navy. There were also Balloon, Maintenance, Reserve, and Training commands. Army Cooperation Command was created in 1940 and Ferry Command (subsequently expanded into Transport Command) in 1941.
Royal Air Force
Royal Air ForceMember of the No. 1 Royal Canadian Air Force Squadron, an element of the Royal Air Force's Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain, 1940.
In order to provide the numbers required to crew the rapidly expanding front line strength and to compensate forthe heavy casualties suffered, training programs were undertaken in many parts of the Commonwealth early in the war. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand combined to operate the Empire Air Training Scheme, under which each of them recruited and trained pilots, navigators, and radio operators for service with the RAF. In addition, since the United Kingdom was the main base for operations against the Axis forces and was itself under constant threat of air attack, flying training became virtually impossible there, and great numbers of aircrew pupils were sent to Canada, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) to receive their training at schools specially established for the purpose. From June 1941 (six months before the United States entered the war) until the end of hostilities, British aircrew were also trained at civilian-operated schools in the United States.
Royal Air Force
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Royal Air ForceRoyal Air Force commandos training with a Lewis gun during World War II.
Halifax heavy bomber
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Halifax heavy bomberHalifax heavy bomber, widely used by the Royal Air Force during World War II.
In the course of the war, techniques were developed for landing individuals or bodies of troops behind enemy lines by means of parachutes or gliders. The RAF cooperated with the army in the training and transport of parachutists and in towing troop-carrying gliders, whose soldier-pilots flew and landed them in the selected area when cast off by the towing aircraft. One other innovation was the formation of the RAF regiment for the protection of aerodromes against enemy attack. Armed with light antiaircraft weapons as well as with the ordinary infantry armament, they were trained on commando lines. They normally served under the orders of the local air force commander but were so organized that they could fit smoothly into the army command structure in the face of a widespread enemy threat.
Watch President Roosevelt outline his Four Freedoms and learn how Britain defeated Germany's Luftwaffe
Watch President Roosevelt outline his Four Freedoms and learn how Britain defeated Germany's LuftwaffeThe Royal Air Force fending off German bombers during the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940.
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The RAF would conduct operations around the globe throughout World War II, but nowhere was its role more conspicuous than during the Battle of Britain. On July 10, 1940, the German air campaign began when the Luftwaffe attempted to clear the English Channel of British convoys. In this they were partially successful because their low-flying aircraft could not be detected on British radar. On August 8 the Germans expanded their attacks to British fighter airfields in southern Britain, and by the end of August night raids were being carried out throughout the kingdom. On August 25 the Germans accidentally bombed London, and the British at once retaliated with a token attack on Berlin. Hitler and Luftwaffe chief Hermann Göring then decided to break the morale of Londoners as they had done to the citizens of Warsaw, Poland, and Rotterdam, Netherlands. On September 7, 1940, the Germans began a series of raids on the capital city that Luftwaffe commanders believed would see the end of the RAF, for they hoped that British Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding would send all his available forces to defend London. Instead, Dowding utilized Chain Home, the most advanced early-warning radar system in the world, to dispatch his limited resources to meet threats as they appeared. At the end of September, Göring, having already lost more than 1,650 aircraft, was forced to change to high-altitude night raids that had limited strategic value. Not only had the RAF won the battle over Britain, but it had also defeated a project to invade Britain by sea by destroying the barges and landing craft that the Germans had been assembling. Above all, Dowding proved that an air force could, contrary to accepted military doctrine, fight a successful defensive battle. Of the RAF’s conduct in the Battle of Britain, Prime Minister Winston Churchill declared, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”
Royal Air Force
Royal Air ForceA Royal Air Force pilot in the cockpit of a Gloster Gladiator, the last biplane fighter fielded by the Royal Air Force, after a battle with Italian aircraft over Libya, 1940.
In the meantime, great air forces were built up in North Africa, Italy, Burma (now Myanmar), and elsewhere. In the seesaw battles in North Africa, the British learned a great deal about highly mobile air warfare. Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder developed not only a mobile logistical system but also the technique of leapfrogging squadrons from airfield to airfield so that he always had operational units while others were redeploying. Beginning in March 1940, the RAF began to bomb targets in Germany, and the British strategic bombing campaign against German cities, industry, and infrastructure would continue throughout the war. With the conclusion of the battle for North Africa, the RAF Desert Air Force transitioned to support the Allied campaign in Italy, and the RAF was instrumental in the success of the Allied invasion of Normandy. Transport aircraft were widely used in campaigns all over Asia to convey vast quantities of food, ammunition, and even vehicles and guns. Isolated bodies of troops in difficult terrain were supplied for protracted periods entirely by parachute. It was mainly by means of the airlift that the Burma campaign was carried to a successful conclusion. These monumental undertakings were reflected by an equally dramatic expansion in numerical strength. By the time the war ended, RAF personnel numbered 963,000, with 153,000 women in the WAAF.
Post-World War II developments
Red Arrows
Red ArrowsThe Red Arrows, the British Royal Air Force aerobatic team, in formation.
When the wartime forces were demobilized in 1945, the total strength of the RAF was reduced to about 150,000. The subsequent deterioration in the international outlook led to a fresh expansion in 1951. By 1956 the total strength was up to 257,000, but by the early 1960s it had again retracted to about 150,000 (including 6,000 women in the WRAF), the majority of whom were stationed in the U.K. or in Europe as part of NATO forces. The RAF regiment remained after the war as a regular arm of the service, tasked with securing airfields and providing forward air control personnel to British army and Royal Marine ground forces. The WRAF became a regular service in 1949, and in April 1994 it was merged with the RAF.
RAF troop strength had declined significantly by the second decade of the 21st century as part of an overall force-reduction strategy implemented by the British military. With some 35,000 troops and fewer than 150 fixed-wing combat aircraft, the RAF was a smaller, more-focused force than it had been in previous years. Despite its reduced size, the RAF remained a potent instrument for projecting British influence across the globe, as demonstrated in wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The RAF also participated in the 2011 NATO air campaign in Libya and conducted operations against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).
Aircraft and equipment of the Royal Air Force
Hawker Hurricane; Royal Air Force
Hawker Hurricane; Royal Air ForceBritish Hawker Hurricane being flown at an air show in Dunsfold, Surrey, England.
Though most of World War II was fought in the air with aircraft powered by piston engines, the last year of hostilities witnessed the entry on both sides of the newly developed jet engine, which by the early 1960s had almost entirely ousted the piston engine in the RAF. The great increase in speed and climb conferred by jet engines pointed to their value in fighters, and it was in this field that reequipment first took place, the early Meteors and Vampires leading on to the Vulcans, Lightnings, and V/STOL (vertical/short take-off and landing) Hawker Harriers of the mid-1960s. The bomber force was built up as the strategic deterrent, and by 1966 its main armament consisted of Handley Page Victor B.2 and Vulcan B.2 medium bombers, of which a number were armed with Blue Steel air-to-surface nuclear standoff missiles. Over time, the RAF phased out its strategic bomber force entirely, and in 1969 its nuclear deterrence mission passed to the Royal Navy’s nuclear submarine fleet.
VTOL airplane
VTOL airplaneBritish Royal Air Force Harrier GR7a VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing) airplane at the July 17, 2006, Royal International Air Tattoo, Fairford, Gloucestershire, England.
The reequipment of the bomber force led to fierce controversy over the respective merits of the British TSR 2 and the U.S. swing-wing F-111A; the government decided on the latter, but its order was later withdrawn for economic reasons, and no major reequipment then took place. The Panavia Tornado, a multirole sweep-wing combat aircraft, entered service in 1979 and would serve as the backbone of British air power for the next 40 years. In addition to the Tornado, the RAF fielded the Eurofighter Typhoon, a delta-wing multirole aircraft that entered service in 2003. The Tornado was retired in 2019 and replaced with the F-35 Lightning, a multirole aircraft also known as the Joint Strike Fighter.
Throughout the 1960s and ’70s, Britain’s strategic transport force consisted of Britannias, Belfast long-range freighters, and VC-10 troop transports, each of the last-named capable of carrying 150 men or a number of armoured vehicles. As these aircraft were retired, there were no obvious successors, and during the Falkland Islands War the British military was forced to rely on civilian aircraft for its transport needs. In time this shortfall was addressed with the addition of such planes as the C-17 Globemaster and the C-130 Hercules.
Quick Facts
Date: 1918 - present
Areas Of Involvement: air warfare
Related People: Keith Park Arthur William Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder Florence Green Sir Quintin Brand
Increasing use was made of helicopters, especially for tactical support of the army. In 1999 the British military’s battlefield rotary-wing aircraft were gathered under the umbrella of the Joint Helicopter Command (JHC). This interservice command was created to better coordinate the attack, rescue, and support capabilities of British helicopter forces.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
This article was most recently revised and updated by Michael Ray.
World History
Wars, Battles & Armed Conflicts
the Blitz
the Blitz Smoke rising from the London Docklands after the first mass air raid on the British capital, September 7, 1940.
Battle of Britain
European history [1940]
Quick Summary
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What was the Battle of Britain?
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Battle of Britain, during World War II, the successful defense of Great Britain against unremitting and destructive air raids conducted by the German air force (Luftwaffe) from July through September 1940, after the fall of France. Victory for the Luftwaffe in the air battle would have exposed Great Britain to invasion by the German army, which was then in control of the ports of France only a few miles away across the English Channel. In the event, the battle was won by the Royal Air Force (RAF) Fighter Command, whose victory not only blocked the possibility of invasion but also created the conditions for Great Britain’s survival, for the extension of the war, and for the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.
Battle of Britain; the Blitz
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Battle of Britain; the BlitzAn aircraft spotter scanning the skies above London, c. 1940.
the Blitz
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the BlitzMembers of the London Auxiliary Fire Fighting Services conducting a war exercise, 1939.
Shortly after the withdrawal of British forces from the European continent in the Dunkirk evacuation (late May–early June 1940), Germany’s armoured forces completed their blitzkrieg invasion of France. The French government collapsed on June 16 and was replaced by a regime that immediately sued for peace. This left the British suddenly alone in their “island home” as the last bastion against “the menace of tyranny,” in the words of their prime minister, Winston Churchill. Speaking before Parliament on June 18, Churchill announced:
What General [Maxime] Weygand [commander of the Allied armies in France] called the Battle of France is over. I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin.…Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, “This was their finest hour.”
On the German side, no plans had been made for an invasion of Britain before the Germans launched their offensive against France, nor were any made even when the collapse of France was assured. German leader Adolf Hitler evidently counted on the British government’s agreeing to a compromise peace on the favourable terms he was prepared to offer, and so he had no desire to press the conflict to a decisive conclusion. The German army was given to understand that the war was over; leave was granted, and the Luftwaffe was shifted to other quarters. Even when Churchill’s determination to continue the war was made manifest, Hitler still clung to the belief that it was merely a bluff, feeling that Britain must recognize “her militarily hopeless situation.” That hope of his was slow to fade. It was not until July 2 that Hitler even ordered a consideration of the problem of invading England, and he still seemed to doubt its necessity when at last, on July 16, he ordered preparations to begin for such an invasion, christened Operation Sea Lion. Hitler stipulated that the expedition be ready by mid-August.
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The German army was in no way prepared for such an undertaking. The staff had not contemplated it, the troops had been given no training for landing operations, and nothing had been done to build landing craft for the purpose. All that could be attempted was a hurried effort to collect shipping, bring barges from Germany and the Netherlands, and give the troops some practice in embarkation and disembarkation. The German generals were very apprehensive of the risks that their forces would run in crossing the sea, and the German admirals were even more frightened about what would happen when the Royal Navy appeared on the scene. They had no confidence in their own power to stop the enemy, and they insisted that the responsibility for doing so be placed on the Luftwaffe. Air Marshal Hermann Göring expressed confidence that his planes could check British naval interference and also drive the RAF out of the sky. So it was agreed that Göring would try his preliminary air offensive, which did not commit the other services to anything definite, while the time for the invasion attempt would be postponed to mid-September.
Supermarine Spitfire
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Supermarine SpitfireSupermarine Spitfire, Britain's premier fighter plane from 1938 through World War II.
World War II-era jet flying.2 of 2
From the Archives: What Was the Battle of Britain?Revisit the Battle of Britain's with 1963 documentary The Second World War: Triumph of the Axis.
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Beginning with bomber attacks against shipping on July 10 and continuing into early August, a rising stream of air attacks was delivered against British convoys and ports. Then, on August 13, the main offensive—called Adlerangriff (“Eagle Attack”) by Hitler—was unleashed, initially against air bases but also against aircraft factories and against radar stations in southeastern England. Although targets and tactics were changed in different phases, the underlying object was always to wear down Britain’s air defense, and indeed the effort severely strained the limited resources of Fighter Command, under Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding. The British disposed slightly more than 600 frontline fighters to defend the country. The Germans meanwhile made available about 1,300 bombers and dive-bombers and about 900 single-engine and 300 twin-engine fighters. These were based in an arc around England from Norway to the Cherbourg peninsula in northern coastal France. For the defense of Britain, Fighter Command was divided into four groups, of which the most hard-pressed during the Battle of Britain were Number 11 Group, defending southeastern England and London and headquartered at Uxbridge, Middlesex; and Number 12 Group, defending the Midlands and Wales and headquartered at Watnall, Nottinghamshire. The other two groups were Number 10, defending southwestern England, and Number 13, defending northern England and all of Scotland. Each group was divided into sectors, which received reports from group headquarters about approaching Luftwaffe formations and mobilized squadrons of planes from numerous airfields to fight them off. The British radar early warning system, called Chain Home, was the most advanced and the most operationally adapted system in the world. Even while suffering from frequent attacks by the Luftwaffe, it largely prevented German bomber formations from exploiting the element of surprise. To fight off the bombers, Fighter Command employed squadrons of durable and heavily armed Hawker Hurricanes, preferring to save the faster and more agile Supermarine Spitfire—unsurpassed as an interceptor by any fighter in any other air force—for use against the bombers’ fighter escorts.
The British thus found themselves fighting with the unexpected advantage of superior equipment. German bombers (mostly lightly armed twin-engine planes such as the Heinkel He 111 and Junkers Ju 88) lacked the bomb load capacity to strike permanently devastating blows, and they also proved, in daylight, to be easily vulnerable to the British fighters. The Germans’ once-feared Junkers Ju 87 “Stuka” dive-bomber was even more vulnerable to being shot down, and their premier fighter—the Messerschmitt Bf 109—could provide only brief long-range cover for the bombers, since it was operating at the limit of its flying range. By late August the Luftwaffe had lost more than 600 aircraft and the RAF only 260. Nevertheless, Fighter Command was losing badly needed fighters and experienced pilots at too great a rate to be sustained. Number 11 Group in particular was in a fight for its life—and, by extension, for Britain’s life as well. Acknowledging that the country’s fate hung on the sacrifice of its airmen, Churchill declared before Parliament on August 20, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”
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German bombing of London during the Blitz
German bombing of London during the BlitzThe dome of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, visible through smoke generated by German incendiary bombs, December 29, 1940.
In addition to technology, Britain had the advantage of fighting against an enemy that had no systematic or consistent plan of action. At the beginning of September, the Germans dropped some bombs, apparently by accident, on civilian areas in London, and the British retaliated by unexpectedly launching a bombing raid on Berlin. This so infuriated Hitler that he ordered the Luftwaffe to shift its attacks from Fighter Command installations to London and other cities. Beginning on September 7, London was attacked on 57 consecutive nights. The bombing of London, Coventry, Liverpool, and other cities went on for several months, but it had the immediate benefit for the RAF of relieving the pressure on Number 11 Group and also bringing more German bomber formations into the sectors of the formidable Number 12 Group.
Quick Facts
Date: July 1940 - September 1940
Location: English Channel France United Kingdom
Participants: Germany United Kingdom
Context: World War II
Key People: Hugh Caswall Tremenheere Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding Albert Kesselring
the Blitz; Battle of Britain
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the Blitz; Battle of BritainLondoners taking refuge from German air raids in an Underground station, c. 1940.
the Blitz
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the BlitzChildren sitting outside the bomb-damaged remains of their home in the suburbs of London, 1940.
By mid-September, Fighter Command had demonstrated that the Luftwaffe could not gain air ascendancy over Britain. British fighters were shooting down German bombers faster than German industry could produce them. To avoid the deadly RAF fighters, the Luftwaffe shifted almost entirely to night raids on Britain’s industrial centres. The “Blitz,” as the night raids came to be called, was to cause many deaths and great hardship for the civilian population, but it contributed little to the main purpose of the air offensive—to dominate the skies in advance of an invasion of England. On September 3 the date of invasion had been deferred to September 21, and then on September 19 Hitler ordered the shipping gathered for Operation Sea Lion to be dispersed. On October 12 he announced that the operation was off for the winter, and long before the arrival of spring he decided to turn eastward against Russia. Plans for an invasion were definitively discarded; the campaign against Britain henceforth became purely a blockade of its sea approaches, conducted mainly by submarines and only supplemented by the Luftwaffe.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Several terms redirect here. For a list of national identity cards, see List of national identity card policies by country. For other uses of "Identity Card" see Identity Card (disambiguation). For other uses of "ID", see ID (disambiguation).
This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its readable prose size was 17,000 words. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (March 2015)
Examples of identity documents (cards) from Argentina, Hungary, South Africa and Vietnam
An identity document (abbreviated as ID) is a document proving a person's identity.
If the identity document is a plastic card it is called an identity card (abbreviated as IC or ID card). When the identity document incorporates a photographic portrait, it is called a photo ID.[1] In some countries, identity documents may be compulsory to have or carry.
The identity document is used to connect a person to information about the person, often in a database. The connection between the identity document and database is based on personal information present on the document, such as the bearer's full name, birth date, address, an identification number, card number, gender, citizenship and more. A unique national identification number is the most secure way, but some countries lack such numbers or do not show them on identity documents.
In the absence of an explicit identity document, other documents such as driver's license may be accepted in many countries for identity verification. Some countries do not accept driver's licenses for identification, often because in those countries they do not expire as documents and can be old or easily forged. Most countries accept passports as a form of identification. Some countries require all people to have an identity document available at all times. Many countries require all foreigners to have a passport or occasionally a national identity card from their home country available at any time if they do not have a residence permit in the country.
History
Italian identity card from 1941
A version of the passport considered to be the earliest identity document inscribed into law was introduced by King Henry V of England with the Safe Conducts Act 1414.[2]
For the next 500 years up to the onset of the First World War, most people did not have or need an identity document.
Photographic identification appeared in 1876[3] but it did not become widely used until the early 20th century when photographs became part of passports and other ID documents, all of which came to be referred to as "photo IDs" in the late 20th century. Both Australia and Great Britain, for example, introduced the requirement for a photographic passport in 1915 after the so-called Lody spy scandal.[4]
The shape and size of identity cards were standardized in 1985 by ISO/IEC 7810. Some modern identity documents are smart cards that include a difficult-to-forge embedded integrated circuit standardized in 1988 by ISO/IEC 7816. New technologies allow identity cards to contain biometric information, such as a photograph, face; hand, or iris measurements; or fingerprints. Many countries issue electronic identity cards.
Adoption
Law enforcement officials claim that identity cards make surveillance and the search for criminals easier and therefore support the universal adoption of identity cards. In countries that do not have a national identity card, there is concern about the projected costs and potential abuse of high-tech smartcards.
In many countries – especially English-speaking countries such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States – there are no government-issued compulsory identity cards for all citizens. Ireland's Public Services Card is not considered a national identity card by the Department of Employment Affairs and Social Protection (DEASP),[5] but many say it is in fact becoming that, and without public debate or even a legislative foundation.[6]
There is debate in these countries about whether such cards and their centralised databases constitute an infringement of privacy and civil liberties. Most criticism is directed towards the possibility of abuse of centralised databases storing sensitive data. A 2006 survey of UK Open University students concluded that the planned compulsory identity card under the Identity Cards Act 2006 coupled with a central government database generated the most negative response among several options. None of the countries listed above mandate identity documents, but they have de facto equivalents since these countries still require proof of identity in many situations. For example, all vehicle drivers must have a driving licence, and young people may need to use specially issued "proof of age cards" when purchasing alcohol.
Arguments for
Arguments for identity documents as such:
In order to avoid mismatching people and to fight fraud, there should be a secure way to prove a person's identity.
Every human being already carries their own personal identification in the form of DNA, which is extremely hard to falsify or to discard (in terms of modification). Even for non-state commercial and private interactions, this may shortly become the preferred identifier, rendering a state-issued identity card a lesser evil than the potentially extensive privacy risks associated with everyday use of a person's genetic profile for identification purposes.[1][7][8][9][10] Other biometric methods are also already in use for tasks such as activating phones, including fingerprint reading, and facial recognition.
Arguments for national identity documents:
If using only private alternatives, such as ID cards issued by banks, the inherent lack of consistency regarding issuance policies can lead to downstream problems. For example, in Sweden private companies such as banks (citing security reasons) refused to issue ID cards to individuals without a Swedish card or Swedish passport. This forced the government to start issuing national cards. It is also harder to control information usage by private companies, such as when credit card issuers or social media companies map purchase behaviour in order to assist ad targeting.
Arguments against
Further information: freedom of movement and Propiska
Arguments against identity documents as such:
The development and administrative costs of an identity card system can be high. Figures from £30 to £90 or even higher were suggested for the abandoned UK ID card. In countries such as Chile the identity card is paid for by each person up to £6; in other countries, such as France or Venezuela, the ID card is free.[11][12] This, however, does not disclose the true cost of issuing ID cards as some additional portion may be borne by taxpayers in general.
Arguments against national identity documents:
Rather than relying on government-issued ID cards, U.S. federal policy has encouraged a variety of identification systems that already exist, such as driver's or firearms licences or private cards.
Arguments against overuse or abuse of identity documents:
Cards reliant on a centralized database can be used to track someone's physical movements and private life, thus infringing on personal freedom and privacy. The proposed British ID card proposes a series of linked databases managed by private sector firms. The management of disparate linked systems across a range of institutions and any number of personnel is alleged to be a security disaster in the making.[13]
If race is displayed on mandatory ID documents, this information can lead to racial profiling.
National policies
For a more comprehensive list, see List of national identity card policies by country.
Compulsory ID cards
Non-compulsory ID cards
According to Privacy International, as of 1996, possession of identity cards was compulsory in about 100 countries, though what constitutes "compulsory" varies. In some countries, it is compulsory to have an identity card when a person reaches a prescribed age. The penalty for non-possession is usually a fine, but in some cases it may result in detention until identity is established. For people suspected with crimes such as shoplifting or fare evasion, non-possession might result in such detention, also in countries not formally requiring identity cards. In practice, random checks are rare, except in certain situations.
A handful of countries do not issue identity cards. These include Andorra,[14] Australia, the Bahamas,[15] Canada, Nauru, New Zealand, Samoa, Tuvalu and the United Kingdom.[16] Other identity documents such as passports or driver's licenses are then used as identity documents when needed. However, governments of the Bahamas and Samoa are planning to introduce new national identity cards in the near future.[17][18] Some countries, like Denmark, have more simple official identity cards, which do not match the security and level of acceptance of a national identity card, and which are used by people without driver's licenses.
A number of countries have voluntary identity card schemes. These include Austria, Belize, Finland, France (see France section), Hungary (however, all citizens of Hungary must have at least one of: valid passport, photo-based driving licence, or the National ID card), Iceland, Ireland, Norway, Saint Lucia, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. The United Kingdom's scheme was scrapped in January 2011 and the database was destroyed.
In the United States, the Federal government issues optional non-obligatory identity cards known as "Passport Cards" (which include important information such as the nationality). On the other hand, states issue optional identity cards for people who do not hold a driver's license as an alternate means of identification. These cards are issued by the same organisation responsible for driver's licenses, usually called the Department of Motor Vehicles. Passport Cards hold limited travel status or provision, usually for domestic travel.
For the Sahrawi people of Western Sahara, pre-1975 Spanish identity cards are the main proof that they were Saharawi citizens as opposed to recent Moroccan settlers. They would thus be allowed to vote in an eventual self-determination referendum.
Companies and government departments may issue ID cards for security purposes, proof of identity, or also as proof of a qualification (without proving identity). For example, all taxicab drivers in the UK carry ID cards. Managers, supervisors, and operatives in construction in the UK can get a photographic ID[19] card, the CSCS (Construction Skills Certification Scheme) card, indicating training and skills including safety training. The card is not an identity card or a legal requirement, but enables holders to prove competence without having to provide all the pertinent documents. Those working on UK railway lands near working lines must carry a photographic ID card to indicate training in track safety (PTS and other cards) possession of which is dependent on periodic and random alcohol and drug screening. In Queensland and Western Australia, anyone working with children has to take a background check and get issued a Blue Card or Working with Children Card, respectively.
Africa
Cape Verde
Main article: Cartão Nacional de Identificação (Cape Verde)
Cartão Nacional de Identificação (CNI) is the national identity card of Cape Verde.
Egypt
It is compulsory for all Egyptian citizens age 16 or older to possess an ID card [20] (Arabic: بطاقة تحقيق شخصية Biṭāqat taḥqīq shakhṣiyya, literally, "Personal Verification Card").[citation needed] In daily colloquial speech, it is generally simply called "el-biṭāqa" ("the card"). It is used for:[citation needed]
Opening or closing a bank account
Registering at a school or university
Registering the number of a mobile or landline telephone
Interacting with most government agencies, including:
Applying for or renewing a driver's license
Applying for a passport
Applying for any social services or grants
Registering to vote, and voting in elections
Registering as a taxpayer
Egyptian ID cards consist of 14 digits, the national identity number, and expire after 7 years from the date of issue. Some feel that Egyptian ID cards are problematic, due to the general poor quality of card holders' photographs and the compulsory requirements for ID card holders to identify their religion and for married women to include their husband's name on their cards.[citation needed]
Gambia
All Gambian citizens over 18 years of age are required to hold a Gambian National Identity Card.[citation needed] In July 2009, a new biometric identity card was introduced.[citation needed] The biometric card is one of the acceptable documents required to apply for a Gambian Driving Licence.[citation needed]
Ghana
Main article: Ghana Card
Ghana begun the issuing of a national identity card for Ghanaian citizens in 1973.[21] However, the project was discontinued three years later due to problems with logistics and lack of financial support. This was the first time the idea of national identification systems in the form of the Ghana Card arose in the country.[21] Full implementation of the Ghana Cards begun from 2006.[22] According to the National Identification Authority, over 15 million Ghanaians have been registered for the Ghana card by September 2020.[23]
Liberia
Liberia has begun the issuance process of its national biometric identification card, which citizens and foreign residents will use to open bank accounts and participate in other government services on a daily basis.
More than 4.5 million people are expected to register and obtain ID cards of citizenship or residence in Liberia. The project has already started where NIR (National Identification Registry) is issuing Citizen National ID Cards. The centralized National Biometric Identification System (NBIS) will be integrated with other government ministries. Resident ID Cards and ECOWAS ID Cards will also be issued.[24]
Mauritius
Mauritius requires all citizens who have reached the age of 18 to apply for a National Identity Card. The National Identity Card is one of the few accepted forms of identification, along with passports. A National Identity Card is needed to apply for a passport for all adults, and all minors must take with them the National Identity Card of a parent(s) when applying for a passport.[25]
Mozambique
Main article: Bilhete de identidade (Mozambique)
Bilhete de identidade (BI) is the national ID card of Mozambique.
Nigeria
Nigeria first introduced a national identity card in 2005, but its adoption back then was limited and not widespread. The country is now in the process of introducing a new biometric ID card complete with a SmartCard and other security features. The National Identity Management Commission (NIMC)[26] is the federal government agency responsible for the issuance of these new cards, as well as the management of the new National Identity Database. The Federal Government of Nigeria announced in April 2013[27] that after the next general election in 2015, all subsequent elections will require that voters will only be eligible to stand for office or vote provided the citizen possesses a NIMC-issued identity card. The Central Bank of Nigeria is also looking into instructing banks to request for a National Identity Number (NIN) for any citizen maintaining an account with any of the banks operating in Nigeria. The proposed kick off date is yet to be determined.
South Africa
Main article: South African identity card
The front of the South African Smart ID
The reverse of the South African Smart ID
South African citizens aged 15 years and 6 months or older are eligible for an ID card. The South African identity document is not valid as a travel document or valid for use outside South Africa. Although carrying the document is not required in daily life, it is necessary to show the document or a certified copy as proof of identity when:
Signing a contract, including
Opening or closing a bank account
Registering at a school or university
Buying a mobile phone and registering the number
Interacting with most government agencies, including
Applying for or renewing a driving licence or firearm licence
Applying for a passport
Applying for any social services or grants
Registering to vote, and voting in elections
Registering as a taxpayer or for unemployment insurance
The South African identity document used to also contain driving and firearms licences; however, these documents are now issued separately in card format. In mid 2013 a smart card ID was launched to replace the ID book. The cards were launched on July 18, 2013, when a number of dignitaries received the first cards at a ceremony in Pretoria.[28] The government plans to have the ID books phased out over a six to eight-year period.[29] The South African government is looking into possibly using this smart card not just as an identification card but also for licences, National Health Insurance, and social grants.[30]
Tunisia
The Tunisian identity card
Every citizen of Tunisia is expected to apply for an ID card by the age of 18; however, with the approval of a parent(s), a Tunisian citizen may apply for, and receive, an ID card prior to their eighteenth birthday upon parental request.[citation needed]
In 2016, The government has introduced a new bill to the parliament to issue new biometric ID documents. The bill has created controversy amid civil society organizations.[31]
Zimbabwe
Zimbabweans are required to apply for National Registration at the age of 16.[citation needed] Zimbabwean citizens are issued with a plastic card which contains a photograph and their particulars onto it. Before the introduction of the plastic card, the Zimbabwean ID card used to be printed on anodised aluminium. Along with Driving Licences, the National Registration Card (including the old metal type) is universally accepted as proof of identity in Zimbabwe. Zimbabweans are required by law to carry identification on them at all times and visitors to Zimbabwe are expected to carry their passport with them at all times.[citation needed]
Asia
Afghanistan
Main article: Afghan identity card
Afghan citizens over the age of 18 are required to carry a national ID document called Tazkira.
Bahrain
Bahraini citizens must have both an ID card, called a "smart card", which is recognized as an official document and can be used within the Gulf Cooperation Council, and a passport, which is recognized worldwide.[citation needed]
Bangladesh
Main article: Bangladeshi national identity card
Biometric identification has existed in Bangladesh since 2008. All Bangladeshis who are 18 years of age and older are included in a central Biometric Database, which is used by the Bangladesh Election Commission to oversee the electoral procedure in Bangladesh. All Bangladeshis are issued with an NID Card which can be used to obtain a passport, Driving Licence, credit card, and to register land ownership.
Bhutan
The Bhutanese national identity card (called the Buthanese Citizenship card) is an electronic ID card, compulsory for all Bhutanese nationals and costs 100 Bhutanese ngultrum.
China
Main article: Resident Identity Card (PRC)
Chinese second-generation ID card
The People's Republic of China requires each of its citizens aged 16 and over to carry an identity card. The card is the only acceptable legal document to obtain employment, a residence permit, driving licence or passport, to open bank accounts or apply for entry to tertiary education and technical colleges, and to gain access to online services, such as TapTap and Bilibili.
Hong Kong
Main article: Hong Kong Identity Card
The Hong Kong Identity Card (or HKID) is an official identity document issued by the Immigration Department of Hong Kong to all people who hold the right of abode, right to land or other forms of limited stay longer than 180 days in Hong Kong. According to Basic Law of Hong Kong, all permanent residents are eligible to obtain the Hong Kong Permanent Identity Card which states that the holder has the right of abode in Hong Kong. All persons aged 16 and above must carry a valid legal government identification document in public. All persons aged 16 and above must be able to produce valid legal government identification documents when requested by legal authorities; otherwise, they may be held in detention to investigate his or her identity and legal right to be in Hong Kong.
India
Main article: Identity documents of India
While there is no mandatory identity card in India, the Aadhaar card, a multi-purpose national identity card, carrying 16 personal details and a unique identification number, has been available to all citizens since 2009.[32] The card contains a photograph, full name, date of birth, and a unique, randomly generated 12-digit National Identification Number. However, the card itself is rarely required as proof, the number or a copy of the card being sufficient. The card has a SCOSTA QR code embedded on the card, through which all the details on the card are accessible.[33] In addition to Aadhaar, PAN cards, ration cards, voter cards and driving licences are also used. These may be issued by either the government of India or the government of any state and are valid throughout the nation. The Indian passport may also be used.
Indonesia
Main article: Indonesian identity card
Indonesian national identity card
Residents over 17 are required to hold a KTP (Kartu Tanda Penduduk) identity card. The card will identify whether the holder is an Indonesian citizen or foreign national. In 2011, the Indonesian government started a two-year ID issuance campaign that utilizes smartcard technology and biometric duplication of fingerprint and iris recognition. This card, called the Electronic KTP (e-KTP), will replace the conventional ID card beginning in 2013. By 2013, it is estimated that approximately 172 million Indonesian nationals will have an e-KTP issued to them.
Iran
Main article: Iranian identity card
Every citizen of Iran has an identification document called Shenasnameh (Iranian identity booklet) in Persian (شناسنامه). This is a booklet based on the citizen's birth certificate which features their Shenasnameh National ID number, given name, surname, their birth date, their birthplace, and the names, birth dates and National ID numbers of their legal ascendants. In other pages of the Shenasnameh, their marriage status, names of spouse(s), names of children, date of every vote cast and eventually their death would be recorded.[34]
Every Iranian permanent resident above the age of 15 must hold a valid National Identity Card (Persian:کارت ملی) or at least obtain their unique National Number from any of the local Vital Records branches of the Iranian Ministry of Interior.[35]
In order to apply for an NID card, the applicant must be at least 15 years old and have a photograph attached to their birth certificate, which is undertaken by the Vital Records branch.
Since June 21, 2008, NID cards have been compulsory for many things in Iran and Iranian missions abroad (e.g., obtaining a passport, driver's license, any banking procedure, etc.).[36]
Iraq
Main article: Iraq National Card
Every Iraqi citizen must have a National Card (البطاقة الوطنية).
Israel
Main article: Teudat Zehut
Israeli biometric national identity card
Israeli law requires every permanent resident above the age of 16, whether a citizen or not, to carry an identification card called te'udat zehut (Hebrew: תעודת זהות) in Hebrew or biţāqat huwīya (بطاقة هوية) in Arabic.
The card is designed in a bilingual form, printed in Hebrew and Arabic; however, the personal data is presented in Hebrew by default and may be presented in Arabic as well if the owner decides so. The card must be presented to an official on duty (e.g., a policeman) upon request, but if the resident is unable to do this, one may contact the relevant authority within five days to avoid a penalty.
Until the mid-1990s, the identification card was considered the only legally reliable document for many actions such as voting or opening a bank account. Since then, the new Israeli driver's licenses which include photos and extra personal information are now considered equally reliable for most of these transactions. In other situations, any government-issued photo ID, such as a passport or a military ID, may suffice.
Japan
Japanese citizens are not required to have identification documents with them within the territory of Japan. When necessary, official documents, such as one's Japanese driver's license, individual number card, basic resident registration card,[37] radio operator license,[38] social insurance card, health insurance card or passport are generally used and accepted. On the other hand, mid- to long-term foreign residents are required to carry their Zairyū cards,[39] while short-term visitors and tourists (those with a Temporary Visitor status sticker in their passport) are required to carry their passports.
Kazakhstan
Main article: Kazakh identity card
Since 1994, Kazakhstan has issued a compulsory identity card (Kazakh: Jeke kuälık), with a validity of 10 years, for all its citizens over the age of 16.[40] In order to receive an ID card, a Kazakh citizen must apply to NJSC State Corporation "Government for Citizens" at their permanent or temporary place of residence.[41]
Currently, there's no legislation in requiring persons in Kazakhstan to carry their ID cards in public.[42] In addition, the ID card documents could be stored digitally in mobile phones due to an eGov app launched in November 2019.[43]
Kuwait
Main article: Kuwaiti identity card
Front and reverse of the Kuwaiti national identity card
The Kuwaiti identity card is issued to Kuwaiti citizens. It can be used as a travel document when visiting countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council.
Kyrgyzstan
The first post-Soviet Kyrgyz identity document was regulated in a government resolution No. 775 of October 17, 1994 "on the approval of the regulations on the passport system of the Kyrgyz Republic" which included a sample passport and its description.[44] The Kyrgyz passport was to be used both internally, as identity document and externally as a passport. In 2004 a separate document, ID card was introduced in accordance with government resolution No. 55 issued on July 27, 2004.[45]
According to the Resolution of the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic dated November 18, 2016 No. 598, 1994 passports with a mark on the extension of the validity period "indefinitely" from April 1, 2017 completely lost their legal force and were recognized as invalid.[46]
The procedure for issuing and describing the form of the identification card were approved by Resolution No. 197 of the Government of Kyrgyzstan issued on April 3, 2017. In 2017 a new model of ID card entered into use.[47]
Macau
Main article: Macau Resident Identity Card
Front of the Macau identity card
Reverse of the Macau identity card
The Macau Resident Identity Card is an official identity document issued by the Identification Department to permanent residents and non-permanent residents.
Malaysia
Main article: MyKad
In Malaysia, the MyKad is the compulsory identity document for Malaysian citizens aged 12 and above. Introduced by the National Registration Department of Malaysia on September 5, 2001, as one of four MSC Malaysia flagship applications[48] and a replacement for the High Quality Identity Card (Kad Pengenalan Bermutu Tinggi), Malaysia became the first country in the world to use an identification card that incorporates both photo identification and fingerprint biometric data on an in-built computer chip embedded in a piece of plastic.[49]
Myanmar
Main article: Burmese nationality law
Myanmar citizens are required to obtain a National Registration Card (NRC), while non-citizens are given a Foreign Registration Card (FRC).
Nepal
Biometric Nepalese identity card
New biometric cards rolled out in 2018. Information displayed in both English and Nepali.[50][51]
Pakistan
Main article: Computerised National Identity Card
In Pakistan, all adult citizens must register for the Computerized National Identity Card (CNIC), with a unique number, at age 18. CNIC serves as an identification document to authenticate an individual's identity as a citizen of Pakistan.
Earlier on, National Identity Cards (NICs) were issued to citizens of Pakistan. Now, the government has shifted all its existing records of National Identity Cards (NIC) to the central computerized database managed by NADRA. New CNIC's are machine readable and have security features such as facial and fingerprint information. At the end of 2013, smart national identity cards, SNICs, were also made available.
Palestine
The Palestinian Authority issues identification cards following agreements with Israel. Since 1995, in accordance to the Oslo Accords, the data is forwarded to Israeli databases and verified.[citation needed] In February 2014, a presidential decision issued by Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas to abolish the religion field was announced.[52] Israel has objected to abolishing religion on Palestinian IDs because it controls their official records, IDs and passports and the PA does not have the right to make amendments to this effect without the prior approval of Israel. The Palestinian Authority in Ramallah said that abolishing religion on the ID has been at the center of negotiations with Israel since 1995. The decision was criticized by Hamas officials in Gaza Strip, saying it is unconstitutional and will not be implemented in Gaza because it undermines the Palestinian cause.[53]
Philippines
Main article: Philippine identity card
Philippine identity card
A new Philippines identity card known as the Philippine Identification System (PhilSys) ID card began to be issued in August 2018 to Filipino citizens and foreign residents aged 18 and above. This national ID card is non-compulsory but should harmonize existing government-initiated identification cards that have been issued – including the Unified Multi-Purpose ID issued to members of the Social Security System, Government Service Insurance System, Philippine Health Insurance Corporation and the Home Development Mutual Fund (Pag-IBIG Fund).
Singapore
Main article: National Registration Identity Card
In Singapore, every citizen, and permanent resident (PR) must register at the age of 15 for an Identity Card (IC). The card is necessary not only for procedures of state but also in the day-to-day transactions such as registering for a mobile phone line, obtaining certain discounts at stores, and logging on to certain websites on the internet. Schools frequently use it to identify students, both online and in exams.[54]
South Korea
Main article: South Korean identity card
Every citizen of South Korea over the age of 17 is issued an ID card called Jumindeungrokjeung (주민등록증). It has had several changes in its history, the most recent form being a plastic card meeting the ISO 7810 standard. The card has the holder's photo and a 15-digit ID number calculated from the holder's birthday and birthplace. A hologram is applied for the purpose of hampering forgery. This card has no additional features used to identify the holder, save the photo. Other than this card, the South Korean government accepts a Korean driver's license card, an Alien Registration Card, a passport and a public officer ID card as an official ID card.
Sri Lanka
Main article: National identity card (Sri Lanka)
The E-National Identity Card (abbreviation: E-NIC) is the identity document in use in Sri Lanka. It is compulsory for all Sri Lankan citizens who are sixteen years of age and older to have a NIC. NICs are issued from the Department for Registration of Persons. The Registration of Persons Act No.32 of 1968 as amended by Act Nos 28 and 37 of 1971 and Act No.11 of 1981 legislates the issuance and usage of NICs.
Sri Lanka is in the process of developing a Smart Card based RFID NIC card which will replace the obsolete 'laminated type' cards by storing the holders information on a chip that can be read by banks, offices, etc., thereby reducing the need to have documentation of these data physically by storing in the cloud.
The NIC number is used for unique personal identification, similar to the social security number in the US.
In Sri Lanka, all citizens over the age of 16 need to apply for a National Identity Card (NIC). Each NIC has a unique 10-digit number, in the format 000000000A (where 0 is a digit and A is a letter). The first two digits of the number are your year of birth (e.g.: 93xxxxxxxx for someone born in 1993). The final letter is generally a 'V' or 'X'. An NIC number is required to apply for a passport (over 16), driving license (over 18) and to vote (over 18). In addition, all citizens are required to carry their NIC on them at all times as proof of identity, given the security situation in the country.[citation needed] NICs are not issued to non-citizens, who are still required to carry a form of photo identification (such as a photocopy of their passport or foreign driving license) at all times. At times the Postal ID card may also be used.
Taiwan
Main article: National Identification Card (Taiwan)
ID card issued in Taiwan
The "National Identification Card" (Chinese: 國民身分證) is issued to all nationals of the Republic of China (Official name of Taiwan) aged 14 and older who have household registration in the Taiwan area. The Identification Card is used for virtually all activities that require identity verification within Taiwan such as opening bank accounts, renting apartments, employment applications and voting.
The Identification Card contains the holder's photo, ID number, Chinese name, and (Minguo calendar) date of birth. The back of the card also contains the person's registered address where official correspondence is sent, place of birth, and the name of legal ascendants and spouse (if any).
If residents move, they must re-register at a municipal office (Chinese: 戶政事務所).
ROC nationals with household registration in Taiwan are known as "registered nationals". ROC nationals who do not have household registration in Taiwan (known as "unregistered nationals") do not qualify for the Identification Card and its associated privileges (e.g., the right to vote and the right of abode in Taiwan), but qualify for the Republic of China passport, which unlike the Identification Card, is not indicative of residency rights in Taiwan. If such "unregistered nationals" are residents of Taiwan, they will hold a Taiwan Area Resident Certificate as an identity document, which is nearly identical to the Alien Resident Certificate issued to foreign nationals/citizens residing in Taiwan.
Tajikistan
In 1994, the first post-Soviet Tajik internal passport appeared, which was filled in manually. Neither the number nor the series of the document were printed on the inner pages, and the owner's photo was easy to re-stick. This document turned out to be the most convenient for falsification, hence such passports were in great demand among citizens of neighbouring countries hiding from justice.[46]
Thailand
Main article: Thai national ID card
Thai national identity card
In Thailand, the Thai National ID Card (Thai: บัตรประจำตัวประชาชน; RTGS: bat pracham tua pracha chon) is an official identity document issued only to Thai Nationals. The card proves the holder's identity for receiving government services and other entitlements.
Turkmenistan
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the establishment of independent Turkmenistan, blank passports of citizens of the USSR of the 1974 model and foreign passports of citizens of the USSR were used in Turkmenistan both as internal identity document and passport, in which the stamp “Citizen of Turkmenistan” was placed. The unified national passport system was introduced in Turkmenistan on October 25, 1996 by the Decree of the President "On Approval of the Regulations on the Passport System in Turkmenistan".[55] According to the approved regulations, the exchange and issuance of national passports of a citizen of Turkmenistan was to be carried out in the period from October 25, 1996 to December 31, 2001. The new document kept its dual-purpose role as internal identity document and passport. Following the introduction of a Turkmen biometric passport in July 2008 to be used as travel document, a separate internal passport was issued. Each Turkmen identity document contains a code based on the region it was issed at.
Region code Region
AS Ashgabat
AH Ahal Region
BN Balkan Region
LB Lebap Region
MR Mary Region
DZ Daşoguz Region
United Arab Emirates
The Federal Authority For Identity and Citizenship is a government agency that is responsible for issuing the National Identity Cards for the citizens (UAE nationals), GCC (Gulf Corporation Council) nationals and residents in the country. All individuals are mandated to apply for the ID card at all ages. For individuals of 15 years and above, fingerprint biometrics (10 fingerprints, palm, and writer) are captured in the registration process. Each person has a unique 15-digit identification number (IDN) that a person holds throughout his/her life.
The Identity Card is a smart card that has a state-of-art technology in the smart cards field with very high security features which make it difficult to duplicate. It is a 144KB Combi Smart Card, where the electronic chip includes personal information, 2 fingerprints, 4-digit pin code, digital signature, and certificates (digital and encryption). Personal photo, IDN, name, date of birth, signature, nationality, and the ID card expiry date are fields visible on the physical card.
In the UAE it is used as an official identification document for all individuals to benefit from services in the government, some of the non-government, and private entities in the UAE. This supports the UAE's vision of smart government as the ID card is used to securely access e-services in the country. The ID card could also be used by citizens as an official travel document between GCC countries instead of using passports. The implementation of the national ID program in the UAE enhanced security of the individuals by protecting their identities and preventing identity theft.[56]
Uzbekistan
Uzbek identity card
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Uzbek passport was also used as an internal identity document. In September 2020, President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev signed a decree "On measures to introduce ID cards in the Republic of Uzbekistan", which called for the introcdution of a new identification document effective January 1, 2021 to eventually replaced by a biometric passport with integrated circuit (chip) by 2030. This will also allow citizens to use government services. From January 1, 2023 to December 31, 2030, the exchange of expired ID cards for biometric passports is mandatory as they expire.[57]
Vietnam
Obverse and reverse sides of an older version of the Vietnamese biometric national identity card
In Vietnam, all citizens above 14 years old must possess an Identity card provided by the local authority, and must be reissued when the citizens' years of age reach 25, 40 and 60. Children from 6 to under 14 years old can request if needed. Formerly a people's ID document was used.[58]
Europe
European Union, European Economic Area and European Free Trade Association
See also: European Union National Identity Cards and PRADO - Public Register of Travel and Identity Documents Online
National identity cards issued to the citizens of the European Union and European Free Trade Association (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland) that state the bearer's citizenship as belonging to an EU/EFTA member can be used as identity documents within the home country, and as travel documents to exercise the right of free movement in the EU or EFTA.[59][60][61]
During the UK Presidency of the EU in 2005 a decision was made to: "Agree common standards for security features and secure issuing procedures for ID cards (December 2005), with detailed standards agreed as soon as possible thereafter. In this respect, the UK Presidency put forward a proposal for the EU-wide use of biometrics in national identity cards".[62]
From August 2, 2021, the European identity card[63][64] is intended to replace and standardize the various identity card styles currently in use.[a][66][67]
Austria
Main article: Austrian identity card
Austrian identity card
The Austrian identity card is issued to Austrian citizens. It can be used as a travel document when visiting countries in the EU/EFTA, Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Kosovo, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, North Macedonia, San Marino, Serbia, Vatican City, the French overseas territories and the British Crown Possessions, as well as on organized tours to Jordan (through Aqaba airport) and Tunisia. Only around 10% of the citizens of Austria had this card in 2012, as they can use the Austrian driver's licenses or other identity cards domestically and the more widely accepted Austrian passport abroad.
Belgium
Main article: Belgian identity card
Belgian national identity card
In Belgium, everyone above the age of 12 is issued an identity card (carte d'identité in French, identiteitskaart in Dutch and Personalausweis in German), and from the age of 15 carrying this card at all times is mandatory. For foreigners residing in Belgium, similar cards (foreigner's cards, vreemdelingenkaart in Dutch, carte pour étrangers in French) are issued, although they may also carry a passport, a work permit, or a (temporary) residence permit.
Since 2000, all newly issued Belgian identity cards have a chip (eID card), and roll-out of these cards is expected to be complete in the course of 2009. Since 2008, the aforementioned foreigner's card has also been replaced by an eID card, containing a similar chip. The eID cards can be used both in the public and private sector for identification and for the creation of legally binding electronic signatures.
Until end 2010 Belgian consulates issued old style ID cards (105 x 75 mm) to Belgian citizens who were permanently residing in their jurisdiction and who chose to be registered at the consulate (which is strongly advised). Since 2011 Belgian consulates issue electronic ID cards, the electronic chip on which is not activated however.
Bulgaria
Main article: Bulgarian identity card
In Bulgaria, it is obligatory to possess an identity card (Bulgarian – лична карта, lichna karta) at the age of 14 and above. Any person above 14 being checked by the police without carrying at least some form of identification is liable to a fine of 50 Bulgarian levs (about €25).
Croatia
Main article: Croatian identity card
Croatian ID card specimen
All Croatian citizens may request an Identity Card, called Osobna iskaznica (literally Personal card). All persons over the age of 18 must have an Identity Card and carry it at all times. Refusal to carry or produce an Identity Card to a police officer can lead to a fine of 100 kuna or more[needs update] and detention until the individual's identity can be verified by fingerprints.
The Croatian ID card is valid in the entire European Union, and can also be used to travel throughout the non-EU countries of the Balkans.
The 2013 design of the Croatian ID card is prepared for future installation of an electronic identity card chip, which is set for implementation in 2014.[68]
Cyprus
Main article: Cypriot identity card
The acquisition and possession of a Civil Identity Card is compulsory for any eligible person who has reached twelve years of age. On January 29, 2015, it was announced that all future IDs to be issued will be biometric.[69] They can be applied for at Citizen Service Centres (KEP) or at consulates with biometric data capturing facilities.
An ID card costs €30 for adults and €20 for children with 10/5 years validity respectively. It is a valid travel document for the entire European Union.
Czech Republic
Main article: Czech national identity card
In Czech, an ID is called Občanský průkaz, an identity card with a photo is issued to all citizens of the Czech Republic at the age of 15. It is officially recognised by all member states of the European Union for intra EU travel. Travelling outside the EU mostly requires the Czech passport.
Denmark
Denmark is the only EU/EEA country that does not issue EU standard national identity cards or travel documents in a card format.
The most common identity documents in Denmark are driving licences and passports, containing both the personal identification number and a photo. Identity documents are not mandatory in Denmark.
For those who do not have a passport or driving licence, Danish identification cards (Danish: legitimationskort) are issued by municipalities. Each municipality has their own design and they are not accepted as valid travel documents outside Denmark. They were launched in 2017, replacing previous "Youth Cards".[70] Since 2018, information about the nationality of the cardholder has been included which briefly allowed the card to be used for travel to Sweden.[71] However in September 2019, Swedish authorities explicitly banned Danish municipal identity cards from being used for entry for security reasons.[72] In 2021, the Danish Ministry of Interior came to the conclusion that more secure ID cards were not on the agenda due to prohibitive costs.[73]
Previously, Personal identification number certificates (Danish:Personnummerbevis) were optionally issued in Denmark but have been largely replaced by National Health Insurance Card (Danish:Sundhedskortet) which contains the same information and health insurance information. The National Health Insurance Card is issued to all health insured residents in Denmark. It was commonly used as a de facto identity document despite the fact it has no photo of the holder. Until 2004, the national debit card Dankort contained a photo of the holder and was widely accepted as identification until Danish banks lobbied successfully to have pictures removed from debit cards. Between 2004 and 2016, municipalities issued a "photo identity card" or "youth cards" (Danish: billedlegitimationskort), but it was limited to proof of age verification.
Estonia
Main article: Estonian ID card
Estonian identity document in 2021
The Estonian identity card (Estonian: ID-kaart) is a chipped picture ID in the Republic of Estonia. An Estonian identity card is officially recognised by all member states of the European Union for intra EU travel. For travelling outside the EU, Estonian citizens may also require a passport.
The card's chip stores a key pair, allowing users to cryptographically sign digital documents based on principles of public key cryptography using DigiDoc. Under Estonian law, since December 15, 2000 the cryptographic signature is legally equivalent to a manual signature.
The Estonian identity card is also used for authentication in Estonia's ambitious Internet-based voting programme. In February 2007, Estonia was the first country in the world to institute electronic voting for parliamentary elections. Over 30 000 voters participated in the country's first e-election. By 2014, at the European Parliament elections, the number of e-voters has increased to more than 100,000 comprising 31% of the total votes cast.[74]
Finland
Main article: Finnish identity card
In Finland, any citizen can get an identification card (henkilökortti/identitetskort). This, along with the passport, is one of two official identity documents. It is available as an electronic ID card (sähköinen henkilökortti/elektroniskt identitetskort), which enables logging into certain government services on the Internet.
Driving licenses and KELA (social security) cards with a photo are also widely used for general identification purposes even though they are not officially recognized as such. However, KELA has ended the practice of issuing social security cards with the photograph of the bearer, while it has become possible to embed the social security information onto the national ID card. For most purposes when identification is required, only valid documents are ID card, passport or driving license. However, a citizen is not required to carry any of these.
France
Main article: National identity card (France)
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Carte_identité_électronique_française_(2021,_recto).png
Front of the French identity card specimen as of 2021
Carte_identité_électronique_française_(2021,_verso).png
Back of the French identity card specimen as of 2021
France has had a national ID card for all citizens since the beginning of World War II in 1940. Compulsory identity documents were created before, for workers from 1803 to 1890, nomads (gens du voyage) in 1912, and foreigners in 1917 during World War I. National identity cards were first issued as the carte d'identité française under the law of October 27, 1940, and were compulsory for everyone over the age of 16. Identity cards were valid for 10 years, had to be updated within a year in case of change of residence, and their renewal required paying a fee. Under the Vichy regime, in addition to the face photograph, the family name, first names, date and place of birth, the card included the national identity number managed by the national statistics INSEE, which is also used as the national service registration number, as the Social Security account number for health and retirement benefits, for access to court files and for tax purposes. Under the decree 55-1397 of October 22, 1955[75][76] a revised non-compulsory card, the carte nationale d'identité (CNI) was introduced.
The law (Art. 78–1 to 78–6 of the French code of criminal procedure (Code de procédure pénale)[77] mentions only that during an ID check performed by police, gendarmerie or customs officer, one can prove his identity "by any means", the validity of which is left to the judgment of the law enforcement official. Though not stated explicitly in the law, an ID card, a driving licence, a passport, a visa, a Carte de Séjour, a voting card are sufficient according to jurisprudence. The decision to accept other documents, with or without the bearer's photograph, like a Social Security card, a travel card or a bank card, is left to the discretion of the law enforcement officer.
According to Art. 78-2 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure, ID checks are only possible:[78]
alineas 1 & 2: if you are the object of inquiries or investigations, have committed, prepared or attempted to commit an offence or if you are able to give information about it (contrôle judiciaire);[79]
alinea 4: within 20 km of French borders and in ports, airports and railway stations open to international traffic (contrôle aux frontières);[80]
alinea 3: whatever the person's behaviour, to prevent a breach of public order and in particular an offence against the safety of persons or property (contrôle administratif).[81]
The last case allows checks of passers-by's ID by the police, especially in neighborhoods with a higher criminality rate which are often the poorest at the condition, according to the Cour de cassation, that the policeman does not refer only to "general and abstract conditions" but to "particular circumstances able to characterise a risk of breach of public order and in particular an offence against the safety of persons or property" (Cass. crim. December 5, 1999, n°99-81153, Bull., n°95).
In case of necessity to establish your identity, not being able to prove it "by any means" (for example the legality of a road traffic procès-verbal depends on it), may lead to a temporary arrest (vérification d'identité) of up to 4 hours for the time strictly required for ascertaining your identity according to art. 78-3 of the French Code of criminal procedure (Code de procédure pénale).[77]
For financial transactions, ID cards and passports are almost always accepted as proof of identity. Due to possible forgery, driver's licenses are sometimes refused. For transactions by cheque involving a larger sum, two different ID documents are frequently requested by merchants.
The current identification cards are now issued free of charge and optional, and are valid for ten years for minors, and fifteen for adults.[82] The current government has proposed a compulsory biometric card system, which has been opposed by human rights groups and by the national authority and regulator on computing systems and databases, the Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libertés, CNIL. Another non-compulsory project is being discussed.
Germany
Main article: German identity card
Sample front of a German identity card issued since 2024
Sample back of a German identity card issued since 2024
It is compulsory for all German citizens aged 16 or older to possess either a Personalausweis (identity card) or a passport but not to carry one. Police officers and other officials have a right to demand to see one of those documents (obligation of identification); however, the law does not state that one is obliged to submit the document at that very moment. But as driver's licences, although sometimes accepted, are not legally accepted forms of identification in Germany, people usually choose to carry their Personalausweis with them.
Beginning from November 2010, German ID cards are issued in the ID-1 format and contain an integrated digital signature. The cards have a photograph and a chip with biometric data, including two now mandatory fingerprints. Until October 2010, German ID cards were issued in ISO/IEC 7810 ID-2 format. On November 1, 2019, German ID cards underwent minor textual adjustments concerning the information field on the surname and surname at birth. On August 2, 2021, German ID cards were adapted to Regulation (EU) 2019/1157. The changes include the country code "DE" being shown in white in the blue European flag on the front and two fingerprints (as an encrypted image file) becoming mandatory. In addition, the version number was added to the machine-readable zone. On May 2, 2024, the doctor's title was moved to the back side of the identity card.
Greece
Main article: Greek identity card
Greek ID card (front)
Greek ID card (back)
A compulsory, universal ID system based on personal ID cards has been in place in Greece since World War II. ID cards are issued by the police on behalf of the ministry responsible for the Headquarters of the Hellenic Police (Ministry of Public Order or Ministry of Citizen Protection or Ministry of the Interior at times) and display the holder's signature, standardized face photograph, name and surname, legal ascendants name and surname, date and place of birth, height, municipality, and the issuing police precinct. There are also two optional fields designed to facilitate emergency medical care: ABO and Rhesus factor blood typing.
Fields included in previous ID card formats, such as vocation or profession, religious denomination, domiciliary address, name and surname of spouse, fingerprint, eye and hair color, citizenship and ethnicity were removed permanently as being intrusive of personal data and/or superfluous for the sole purpose of personal identification.
Since 2000, name fields have been filled in both Greek and Latin characters. According to the Signpost Service of the European Commission [reply to Enquiry 36581], old type Greek ID cards "are as valid as the new type according to Greek law and thus they constitute valid travel documents that all other EU Member States are obliged to accept". In addition to being equivalent to passports within the EU and EFTA, Greek ID cards are the principal means of identification of voters during elections.
Since 2005, the procedure to issue an ID card has been automated and now all citizens over 12 years of age must have an ID card, which is issued within one work day.[citation needed] Prior to that date, the age of compulsory issue was at 14 and the whole procedure could last several months.
In Greece, an ID card is a citizen's most important state document.[original research?] For instance, it is required to perform banking transactions if the teller personnel is unfamiliar with the apparent account holder, to interact with the Citizen Service Bureaus (KEP),[83] receive parcels or registered mail etc. Citizens are also required to produce their ID card at the request of law enforcement personnel.
All the above functions can be fulfilled also with a valid Greek passport (e.g., for people who have lost their ID card and have not yet applied for a new one, people who happen to carry their passport instead of their ID card or Greeks who reside abroad and do not have an identity card, which can be issued only in Greece in contrast to passports also issued by consular authorities abroad).
Hungary
Main article: Hungarian identity card
Front of a Hungarian national ID card
Back of a Hungarian national ID card
Currently, there are three types of valid ID documents (Személyazonosító igazolvány, née Személyi igazolvány, abbr. Sz.ig.) in Hungary: the oldest valid ones are hard-covered, multi-page booklets and issued before 1989 by the People's Republic of Hungary, the second type is a soft-cover, multi-page booklet issued after the change of regime; these two have one, original photo of the owner embedded, with original signatures of the owner and the local police's representative. The third type is a plastic card with the photo and the signature of the holder digitally reproduced. These are generally called Personal Identity Card.
The plastic card shows the owners full name, maiden name if applicable, birth date and place, mother's maiden name, the cardholder's gender, the ID's validity period and the local state authority which issued the card. The card has a 6 digit number + 2 letter unique ID and a separate machine readable zone on the back for identity document scanning devices. It does not have any information about the owner's residential address, nor their personal identity number – this sensitive information is contained on a separate card, called a Residency Card (Lakcímkártya). Personal identity numbers have been issued since 1975; they have the following format in numbers: gender (1 number) – birth date (6 numbers) – unique ID (4 numbers). They are no longer used as a personal identification number, but as a statistical signature.
Other valid documents are the passport (blue colored or red colored with RFID chip) and the driver's license; an individual is required to have at least one of them on hand all the time. The Personal Identity Card is mandatory to vote in state elections or open a bank account in the country.
ID cards are issued to permanent residents of Hungary; the card has a different color for foreign citizens.[citation needed]
Iceland
Main article: Icelandic identity card
Icelandic ID card (front)
Icelandic state-issued identity cards are called "Nafnskírteini" (lit. 'name certificate').[84] The ID cards are voluntary, conforming to biometric ICAO and EU standards and can be used as a travel document in the EU/EFTA and the Nordic countries.[85] Identity documents are not mandatory to carry or own by law (unless driving a car), but can be needed for bank services, age verification and other situations. Most people (91%) have driving licences for day-to-day use.[86]
Ireland
Main article: Irish passport card
Ireland does not issue mandatory national identity cards as such. Except for a brief period during the Second World War when the Irish Department of External Affairs issued identity cards to those wishing to travel to the United Kingdom,[87] Ireland has never issued national identity cards as such.
Identity documentation is optional for Irish and British citizens. Nevertheless, identification is mandatory to obtain certain services such as air travel, banking, interactions regarding welfare and public services, age verification, and additional situations.
"Non-nationals" aged 16 years and over must produce identification on demand to any immigration officer or a member of the Garda Síochána (police).[88]
Passport booklets, passport cards, driving licences, GNIB Registration Certificates[89] and other forms of identity cards can be used for identification. Ireland has issued optional passport cards since October 2015.[90] The cards are the size of a credit card and have all the information from the biographical page of an Irish passport booklet and can be used explicitly for travel in the EU and EFTA.
Ireland issues a "Public Services Card" which is useful when identification is needed for contacts regarding welfare and public services. They have photographs but not birth dates and are therefore not accepted by banks. The card is also not considered as being an identity card by the Department of Employment Affairs and Social Protection (DEASP). In an Oireachtas (parliament) committee hearing held on February 22, 2018, Tim Duggan of that department stated "A national ID card is an entirely different idea. People are generally compelled to carry (such a card)."[5]
Italy
Main article: Italian electronic identity card
Current Italian ID card (front)
Current Italian ID card (back)
Anyone who is legally resident in Italy, whether a citizen or not, is entitled to request an identity card at the local municipality.[91] However, only Italian citizens can use it as a travel document in lieu of a passport, and get it on a consulate/embassy.[92]
It is valid in all Europe (except in Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and the UK) and to travel to Turkey, Georgia, Egypt and Tunisia.[93]
The Italian citizen is not legally required to carry an identification document, as they have the right to identify themselves verbally. However, if they are asked to present it by law enforcement and have it with them at that moment, they must show it to avoid committing an offense.[94][95] If public-security officers are not convinced of the claimed identity, such as may be the case for a verbally provided identity claim, they may keep the claimant in custody until his/her identity is ascertained;[96] such an arrest is limited to the time necessary for identification and has no legal consequence.
Instead, all foreigners in Italy are required by law to have an ID with them at all times.[97] Citizens of EU member countries must be always ready to display an identity document that is legally government-issued in their country. Non-EU residents must have their passport with customs entrance stamp or a residence permit issued by Italian authorities; while all resident/immigrant aliens must have a residence permit (they are otherwise illegal and face deportation), foreigners from certain non-EU countries staying in Italy for a limited amount of time (typically for tourism) may be only required to have their passport with a proper customs stamp.
The current Italian identity document is a contactless electronic card made of polycarbonate in the ID-1 format with many security features and containing the following items printed by laser engraving:[98]
On the front: photo, card number, municipality, name, surname, place and date of birth, sex, height, nationality, date of issue, date of expiry, signature, Card Access Number, (optional) the sentence "non valida per l'espatrio" only if the document is not valid abroad
On the back: surname and name of parents or legal guardian (if the applicant is not an adult yet), Italian fiscal code, Italian birth code, residence address, (optional) additional information if the owner is residing abroad, Italian fiscal code in form of barcode, Machine Readable Zone
Moreover, the embedded electronic microprocessor chip stores the holder's picture, name, surname, place and date of birth, residency and (only if aged 12 and more) two fingerprints.[99]
The card is integrated into the Italian SSO infrastructure, the SPID and permits the holder to use the NFC chip of the card as a login for that service.
The card is issued by the Ministry of the Interior in collaboration with the IPZS in Rome and sent to the applicant within 6 business days.[100]
The validity is 10 years for adults, 5 years for minors aged 3–18, 3 years for children aged 0–3[91] and it is extended or shortened in order to expire always on birthday.[101]
However, the old classic Italian ID card is still valid and in the process of being replaced with the new eID card since 4 July 2016,[102] because the lack of a Machine Readable Zone, the odd size, the fact that is made of paper and so easy to forge, often cause delays at border controls and, furthermore, foreign countries outside the EU sometimes refuse to accept it as a valid document. These common criticisms were considered in the development of the new Italian electronic identity card, which is in the more common credit-card format and now has many of the latest security features available nowadays.
Latvia
Main article: Latvian identity card
Current Latvian identity document
The Latvian "Personal certificate" is issued to Latvian citizens and is valid for travel within Europe (except Belarus, Russia, Ukraine and UK), Georgia, French Overseas territories and Montserrat (max. 14 days).
Liechtenstein
Main article: Liechtenstein identity card
Current Liechtensteiner identity document
The Principality of Liechtenstein has a voluntary ID card system for citizens, the Identitätskarte. Liechtenstein citizens are entitled to use a valid national identity card to exercise their right of free movement in the EU and EFTA[60][59][103]
Lithuania
Main article: Lithuanian identity card
Lithuanian Personal Identity Card can be used as primary evidence of Lithuanian citizenship, just like a passport and can also be used as proof of identity both inside and outside Lithuania. It is valid for travel within most European nations.
Luxembourg
Main article: Luxembourg identity card
The Luxembourgish identity card is issued to Luxembourgish citizens. It serves as proof of identity and nationality and can also be used for travel within the European Union and a number of other European countries.
Malta
Main article: Maltese identity card
Maltese identity cards are issued to Maltese citizens and other lawful residents of Malta. They can be used as a travel document when visiting countries in the European Union and the European Free Trade Association.
Netherlands
Main article: Dutch identity card
Dutch identity document, front
Dutch citizens from the age of 14 are required to be able to show a valid identity document upon request by a police officer or similar official. Furthermore, identity documents are required when opening bank accounts and upon start of work for a new employer. Official identity documents for residents in the Netherlands are:
Dutch passport
Dutch identity card
Alien's Residence permit
Geprivilegieerdenkaart (amongst others for the corps diplomatique and their family members)
Passports/national ID cards of members of other EU and EFTA countries
Dutch identity document, back
For the purpose of identification in public (but not for other purposes), also a Dutch driving license often may serve as an identity document. In the Caribbean Netherlands, Dutch and other EU/EFTA identity cards are not valid; and the Identity card BES is an obligatory document for all residents.
Norway
Main article: Norwegian identity card
Front of a Norwegian national ID card
In Norway there is no law penalising non-possession of an identity document. But there are rules requiring it for services like banking, air travel and voting (where personal recognition or other identification methods have not been possible).
The following documents are generally considered valid (varying a little, since no law lists them):[104] Nordic driving licence, passport (often only from EU and EFTA), national ID card from EU, Norwegian ID card from banks and some more. Bank ID cards are printed on the reverse of Norwegian debit cards. To get a bank ID card either a Nordic passport or another passport together with Norwegian residence and work permit is needed.
The Norwegian identity card was introduced on November 30, 2020.[105][106] Two versions of the card exist, one that states Norwegian citizenship and is usable for exercising freedom of movement within the EU and EFTA[60][59][103] and the other for general identification.[107] The plan started in 2007 and was delayed several times.[108] Banks were campaigning to be freed from the task of issuing ID cards, stating that it was supposed to be the responsibility of state authorities.[109] Some banks ceased issuing ID cards, so people had to carry their passport for credit card purchases or buying prescribed medication if not in possession of a driving licence.[110][111]
Foreign citizens resident in Norway are not allowed to get the Norwegian identity card. When banks stopped issuing the cards and it was suggested that citizens get a national identity card, foreign citizens who did not have a driving licence or a homeland passport were left outside of the system. Therefore, as of 2022 there are plans to issue a version of the Norwegian identity card for foreign citizens.[112]
As of 2020, a digital ID document was introduced in Norway.[113] It requires a phone app and is useful for age checks, pick up of postal packages as well as other tasks. To activate it, a passport or national ID-card is needed. Many young people targeted for alcohol age checks or without a driver's license tend to use it, but also some older citizens.[114]
Poland
Main article: Polish National Identity Card
Polish identity document, front
Every Polish citizen 18 years of age or older residing permanently in Poland must have an Identity Card (dokument tożsamości) issued by the local Office of Civic Affairs. Polish citizens living permanently abroad are entitled, but not required, to have one.
Portugal
Main article: identity card (Portugal)
All Portuguese citizens are required by law to obtain an Identity Card when they turn 6 years of age. They are not required to carry it at all times but are obliged to present it to the authorities if requested.
The old format of the cards (yellow laminated paper document) featured a portrait of the bearer, their fingerprint, and the names of parent(s), among other information.
They are currently being replaced by grey plastic cards with a chip, called Cartão de Cidadão (Identity card Card), which now incorporate NIF (Tax Number), Cartão de Utente (Health Card) and Social Security, all of which are protected by a PIN obtained when the card is issued.
The new Citizen's Card is technologically more advanced than the former Identity Card and has the following characteristics:
From the physical point of view the Citizen's Card will have a 'smart card' format and will replace the existing Identity Card, taxpayer card, Social Security card, voter's card and National Health Service user's card.
From the visual point of view the front of the card will display the holder's photograph and basic personal details. The back will list the numbers under which the holder is registered with the different bodies whose cards the Citizen's Card combines and replaces. The back will also contain an optical reader and the chip.
From the electronic point of view the card will have a contact chip, with digital certificates (for electronic authentication and signature purposes). The chip may also hold the same information as the physical card itself, together with other data such as the holder's address.
Romania
Main article: Romanian identity card
Specimen of a Romanian identity card issued since 2021
Every citizen of Romania must register for an ID card (Carte de identitate, abbreviated CI) at the age of 14. The CI offers proof of the identity, address, sex and other data of the possessor. It has to be renewed every 10 years. It can be used instead of a passport for travel inside the European Union and several other countries outside the EU.
Another ID card is the Provisional ID Card (Cartea de Identitate Provizorie) issued temporarily when an individual cannot get a normal ID card. Its validity extends for up to 1 year. It cannot be used in order to travel within the EU, unlike the normal ID card.
Other forms of officially accepted identification include the driver's license and the birth certificate. However, these are accepted only in limited circumstances and cannot take the place of the ID card in most cases. The ID card is mandatory for dealing with government institutions, banks or currency exchange shops. A valid passport may also be accepted, but usually only for foreigners.
In addition, citizens can be expected to provide the personal identification number (CNP) in many circumstances; purposes range from simple unique identification and internal book-keeping (for example when drawing up the papers for the warranty of purchased goods) to being asked for identification by the police. The CNP is 13 characters long, with the format S-YY-MM-DD-RR-XXX-Y. Where S is the sex, YY is year of birth, MM is month of birth, DD is day of birth, RR is a regional id, XXX is a unique random number and Y is a control digit.
Presenting the ID card is preferred but not mandatory when asked by police officers; however, in such cases people are expected to provide a CNP or alternate means of identification which can be checked on the spot (via radio if needed).
The information on the ID card is required to be kept updated by the owner, current address of domicile in particular. Doing otherwise can expose the citizen to certain fines or be denied service by those institutions that require a valid, up to date card. In spite of this, it is common for people to let the information lapse or go around with expired ID cards.
Slovakia
Main article: Slovak identity card
Slovak ID card (front)
The Slovak ID card (Slovak: Občiansky preukaz) is a picture ID in Slovakia. It is issued to citizens of the Slovak Republic who are 15 or older. A Slovak ID card is officially recognised by all member states of the EU/EFTA for travel. For travel outside the EU, Slovak citizens may also require the Slovak passport, which is a legally accepted form of picture ID as well. Police officers and some[who?] other officials have a right to demand to see one of those documents, and the law states that one is obliged to submit such a document at that very moment. If one fails to comply, law enforcement officers are allowed to insist on personal identification at the police station.
Slovenia
Main article: Slovenian identity card
Slovenian identity card (front)
Every Slovenian citizen regardless of age has the right to acquire an identity card (Slovene: osebna izkaznica), and every citizen of the Republic of Slovenia of 18 years of age or older is obliged by law to acquire one and carry it at all times (or any other identity document with a picture, e.g., the Slovene passport or a driver's license). The card is a valid identity document within all member states of the European Union for travel within the EU. With the exception of the Faroe Islands and Greenland, it may be used to travel outside of the EU to Norway, Liechtenstein, BiH, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Switzerland. The front side displays the name and surname, sex, nationality, date of birth, and expiration date of the card, as well as the number of the ID card, a black and white photograph, and a signature. The back contains the permanent address, administrative unit, date of issue, EMŠO, and a code with key information in a machine-readable zone. Depending on the holder's age, the card is valid for 5 years or 10 years or permanently, and it is valid 1 year for foreigners living in Slovenia, in case of repeated loss, and in some other circumstances.[115] Since 28 March 2022, it is possible but not mandatory to acquire a biometric ID card.[116] An identity document in healthcare institutions is the healthcare insurance card. Since April 2023, a biometric ID card may be used instead.[117]
Spain
Main article: Documento Nacional de Identidad (Spain)
Current Spanish identity document (front)
(back)
In Spain, citizens, resident foreigners, and companies have similar but distinct identity numbers, some with prefix letters, all with a check-code:[118]
NIF Both natural and legal persons have a tax code or Número de Identificación Fiscal (NIF), which is the same as their identity document. For companies this was formerly known as Código de Identificación Fiscal (CIF)
DNI Spanish citizens have a National Idenitity Card (DNI), which bears this number without any letter prefix. This is sometimes known by obsolete names such as Cédula de Ciudadanía (CC),Carné de Identidad (CI) or Cédula de Identidad (CI).
Spanish citizens under 14 may, but over 14 must, acquire a National Identity Card (DNI). It is issued by the National Police formerly ID-1 (bankcard) format paper encapsulated in plastic. Since 2006 a new version of the 'DNI' has been introduced. The new 'Electronic DNI' is a Smart card that allows for digital signing of documents. The chip contains most of the personal information printed on the card and a digitized version of the bearer's face, signature and fingerprints.[119]
On the front there is a photograph, the name and surname (see Spanish naming customs), the bearer's signature, an id number, the issue date and the expiry date. On the reverse appears the date and place of birth, the gender, legal ascendants name and the current address. At the bottom there is key information in a machine-readable zone. Depending on holder's age, the card has a validity of 5 years, 10 years or indefinite (for the elderly).[120]
CIF Código de Identidad Fiscal has been retained only for associations and foundations that have a CIF which starts with the letter G.
NIE Foreigners ( eXtranjeros in Spanish) are issued with a Número de Identificación de Extranjero, which starts with the letter X or Y. NIE cards for EU citizens have been abolished and replaced by a printed A4 page, which does not need to be carried, whilst cards are still issued to non-EU citizens, now following the standard European format.[121]
Despite the NIF/CIF/NIE/NIF distinctions the identity number is unique and always has eight digits (the NIE has 7 digits) followed by a letter calculated from a 23-Modular arithmetic check used to verify the correctness of the number. The letters I, Ñ, O and U are not used and the sequence is as follows:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
T R W A G M Y F P D X B N J Z S Q V H L C K E
This number is the same for tax, social security and all legal purposes. Without this number (or a foreign equivalent such as a passport number), a contract may not be enforceable.
In Spain the formal identity number on an ID card is the most important piece of identification. It is used in all public and private transactions. It is required to open a bank account, to sign a contract, to have state insurance and to register at a university and should be shown when being fined by a police officer.[122] It is one of the official documents required to vote at any election, although any other form of official ID such as a driving licence or passport may be used. The card also constitutes a valid travel document within the European Union.[123]
Non-resident citizens of countries such as the United Kingdom, where passport numbers are not fixed for the holder's life but change with renewal, may experience difficulty with legal transactions after the document is renewed since the old number is no longer verifiable on a valid (foreign) passport. However, a NIE is issued for life and does not change and can be used for the same purposes.
Sweden
Main article: Identity card (Sweden)
Swedish identity document
Sweden does not have a legal statute for compulsory identity documents. However, ID cards are regularly used to ascertain a person's identity when completing certain transactions. These include but are not limited to banking and age verification. Also, interactions with public authorities often require it, in spite of the fact that there is no law explicitly requiring it, because there are laws requiring authorities to somehow verify people's identity. Without Swedish identity documents difficulties can occur accessing health care services, receiving prescription medications and getting salaries or grants. From 2008, EU passports have been accepted for these services due to EU legislation (with exceptions including banking), but non-EU passports are not accepted. Identity cards have therefore become an important part of everyday life.
There are currently three public authorities that issue ID cards: the Swedish Tax Agency, the Swedish Police Authority, and the Swedish Transport Agency.
The Tax Agency cards can only be used within Sweden to validate a person's identity, but they can be obtained both by Swedish citizens and those that currently reside in Sweden. A Swedish personal identity number is required. It is possible to get one without having any Swedish ID card. In this case a person holding such a card must guarantee the identity, and the person must be a verifiable relative or the boss at the company the person has been working or a few other verifiable people.
The Police can only issue identity documents to Swedish citizens. They issue an internationally recognised identity card according to EU standard usable for intra-European travel, and Swedish passports which are acceptable as identity documents worldwide.[124]
The Transport Agency issues driving licences, which are valid as identity documents in Sweden. To obtain one, one must be approved as a driver and strictly have another Swedish identity document as proof of identity.
In the past there have been certain groups that have experienced problems obtaining valid identification documents. This was due to the initial process that was required to validate one's identity, unregulated security requirements by the commercial companies which issued them. Since July 2009, the Tax Agency has begun to issue ID cards, which has simplified the identity validation process for foreign passport holders. There are still requirements for identity validation that can cause trouble, especially for foreign citizens, but the list of people who can validate one's identity has been extended.
Switzerland
Main article: Swiss identity card
Current Swiss identity card
Swiss citizens have no obligation of identification in Switzerland and thus, are not required by law to be able to show a valid identity document upon request by a police officer or similar official. Furthermore, identity documents are required when opening a bank account or when dealing with public administration.
Relevant in daily life of Swiss citizens are Swiss ID card[125] and Swiss driver's license;[126] the latter needs to be presented upon request by a police officer, when driving a motor-vehicle as e.g., a car, a motorcycle, a bus or a truck. Swiss citizens are entitled to use a valid national identity card to exercise their right of free movement in EFTA[60] and the EU.[61]
Swiss passport[127] is needed only for e.g., travel abroad to countries not accepting Swiss ID card as travel document.
Other European countries
Andorra
No national identity card in the principality. Passports and driving licenses are most commonly used for identification.[14] When visiting France or Spain a passport is needed in lack[clarification needed] of a national identity card, although driving licenses are often used and accepted unofficially.
Albania
Main article: Albanian identity card
Albanian electronic ID Card 2009
From January 12, 2009, the Government of Albania is issuing a compulsory electronic and biometric ID Card (Letërnjoftim) for its citizens.[128] Every citizen at age 16 must apply for Biometric ID card.
Azerbaijan
Main article: Azerbaijan identity card
Azerbaijan issues a compulsory ID Card (Şəxsiyyət vəsiqəsi) for its citizens.
Every citizen at age 16 must apply for ID card.
Belarus
Main article: Belarusian passport
Belarus has combined the international passport and the internal passport into one document which is compulsory from age 14. It follows the international passport convention but has extra pages for domestic use.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Main article: Bosnia and Herzegovina identity card
Bosnian identity card
Bosnia and Herzegovina allows every person over the age of 15 to apply for an ID card, and all citizens over the age of 18 must have the national ID card with them at all times. A penalty is issued if the citizen does not have the acquired ID card on them or if the citizen refuses to show proof of identification.
Kosovo
Main article: Identity card of Kosovo
The Kosovo Identity Card is an ID card issued to the citizens of Kosovo for the purpose of establishing their identity, as well as serving as proof of residency, right to work and right to public benefits. It can be used instead of a passport for travel to some neighboring countries.
Moldova
Main article: Moldovan identity card
Moldovan identity card
In Moldova, identity cards (Romanian: Carte de identitate) have been issued since 1996. The first person to get identity card was former president of Moldova – Mircea Snegur. Since then, all the Moldovan citizens are required to have and use it inside the country. It cannot be used to travel outside the country; however, it is possible to pass the so-called Transnistrian border with it.
The Moldovan identity card may be obtained by a child from his/her date of birth. The state Public Services Agency is responsible for issuing identity cards and for storing data of all Moldovan citizens.
Monaco
Main article: Monégasque identity card
Monégasque identity cards are issued to Monégasque citizens and can be used for travel within the Schengen Area.
Montenegro
Main article: Montenegrin identity card
Montenegrin national ID card
In Montenegro every resident citizen over the age of 14 can have their Lična karta issued, and all persons over the age of 18 must have ID cards and carry them at all times when they are in public places. It can be used for international travel to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, North Macedonia, Kosovo and Albania instead of the passport.
North Macedonia
Main article: Identity card of North Macedonia
The identity card of North Macedonia
The identity card of North Macedonia (Macedonian: Лична карта, Lična karta) is a compulsory identity document issued in North Macedonia. The document is issued by the police on behalf of the Ministry of Interior. Every citizen over 18 must be issued this identity card.
Russia
Main article: Internal passport of Russia
Russian internal passport, front
Russian internal passport: photo, dates and signature page
The role of identity documentation is primarily played by the so-called Russian internal passport, a passport-size booklet which contains a person's photograph, birth information and other data such as registration at the place of residence (informally known as propiska), marital data, information about military service and underage children. Internal passports are issued by the Main Directorate for Migration Affairs to all citizens who reach their 14th birthday and do not reside outside Russia. They are re-issued at the age 20 and 45.
The internal passport is commonly considered the only acceptable ID document in governmental offices, banks, while traveling by train or plane, getting a subscription service, etc. If the person does not have an internal passport (i.e., foreign nationals or Russian citizens who live abroad), an international passport can be accepted instead, theoretically in all cases. Another exception is army conscripts, who produce the Identity Card of the Russian Armed Forces.
Internal passports can also be used to travel to Belarus, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Abkhazia and South Ossetia.[citation needed]
Other documents, such as driver's licenses or student cards, can sometimes be accepted as ID, subject to regulations.
San Marino
Main article: San Marino identity card
The national identity card is compulsory for all Sanmarinese citizens.[129] Biometric and valid for international travel since 2016.
Serbia
Main article: Serbian identity card
Serbian national ID card
In Serbia every resident citizen over the age of 10 can have their Lična karta issued, and all persons over the age of 16 must have ID cards and carry them at all times when they are in public places.[130] It can be used for international travel to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Macedonia instead of the passport.[131] Contact microchip on ID is optional.
Kosovo issues its own identity cards. These documents are accepted by Serbia when used as identification while crossing the Serbia-Kosovo border.[132] They can also be used for international travel to Montenegro[133] and Albania.[134]
Turkey
Main article: Turkish identity card
The Turkish national ID card (Turkish: Nüfus Cüzdanı) is compulsory for all Turkish citizens from birth. Cards for males and females have a different color. The front shows the first and last name of the holder, first name of legal ascendants, birth date and place, and an 11 digit ID number. The back shows marital status, religious affiliation, the region of the county of origin, and the date of issue of the card. On February 2, 2010, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in a 6 to 1 vote that the religious affiliation section of the Turkish identity card violated articles 6, 9, and 12 of the European Convention of Human Rights, to which Turkey is a signatory. The ruling should coerce the Turkish government to completely omit religious affiliation on future identity cards. The Turkish police are allowed to ask any person to show ID, and refusing to comply may lead to arrest. It can be used for international travel to Northern Cyprus, Georgia and Ukraine instead of a passport.
Ministry of Interior of Turkey released EU-like identity cards for all Turkish citizens in 2017. New identity cards are fully biometric and can be used as a bank card, bus ticket or at international trips.
Ukraine
Main article: Ukrainian identity card
Ukrainian identity card
The Ukrainian identity card or Passport of the Citizen of Ukraine (also known as the Internal passport or Passport Card) is an identity document issued to citizens of Ukraine. Every Ukrainian citizen aged 14[135] or above and permanently residing in Ukraine must possess an identity card issued by local authorities of the State Migration Service of Ukraine.
Ukrainian identity cards are valid for 10 years (or 4 years, if issued for citizens aged 14 but less than 18) and afterwards must be exchanged for a new document.
United Kingdom
Main article: UK Digital ID
Main article: Identity Cards Act 2006
See also: Identity Documents Act 2010
The UK Digital ID scheme was proposed on 25 September 2025 as a digital identity document for adult residents of the United Kingdom to be implemented by 2029. It is intended to be mandatory for right to work checks and is also part of attempts to tackle the rise in illegal migrant crossings in small boats across the English Channel.[136]. Until implementation, the UK has no national identity card and has no general obligation of identification, although drivers may be required to produce their licence and insurance documents to a police station within 7 days of a traffic stop if they are not able to provide them at the time.
UK child identity card from 1946
The UK had an identity card during World War II as part of a package of emergency powers; this was abolished in 1952 by repealing the National Registration Act 1939. Identity cards were first proposed in the mid-1980s for people attending football matches, following a series of high-profile hooliganism incidents involving English football fans. However, this proposed identity card scheme never went ahead as Lord Taylor of Gosforth ruled it out as "unworkable" in the Taylor Report of 1990.
The Identity Cards Act 2006 implemented a national ID scheme backed by a National Identity Register – an ambitious database linking a variety of data including Police, Health, Immigration, Electoral Rolls and other records. Several groups such as No2ID formed to campaign against ID cards in Britain and more importantly the NIR database, which was seen as a "panopticon" and a significant threat to civil liberties. The scheme saw setbacks after the Loss of United Kingdom child benefit data (2007) and other high-profile data losses turned public opinion against the government storing large, linked personal datasets.
Various partial rollouts were attempted such as compulsory identity cards for non-EU residents in Britain (starting late 2008), with voluntary registration for British nationals introduced in 2009 and mandatory registration proposed for certain high-security professions such as airport workers. However, the mandatory registrations met with resistance from unions such as the British Airline Pilots' Association.[137]
After the 2010 general election a new coalition government was formed. Both parties had pledged to scrap ID cards in their election manifestos. The 2006 act was repealed by the Identity Documents Act 2010 which also required that the nascent NIR database be destroyed. The Home Office announced that the national identity register had been destroyed on February 10, 2011.[138] Prior to the 2006 Act, work had started to update British passports with RFID chips to support the use of ePassport gates. This continued, with traditional passports being replaced with RFID versions on renewal.
Driving licences, particularly the photocard driving licence introduced in 1998, and passports are now the most widely used ID documents in the United Kingdom, but the former cannot be used as travel documents, except within the Common Travel Area. However, driving licences from the UK and EU countries are usually accepted within EU and EFTA countries for identity verification. Most people do not carry their passports in public without knowing in advance that they are going to need them as they do not fit in a typical wallet and are relatively expensive to replace. Consequently, driving licences are the most common and convenient form of ID in use, along with PASS-accredited cards, used mainly for proof-of-age purposes. Unlike a travel document, they do not show the holder's nationality or immigration status. For proof-of-age purchases, a provisional driving license is often used by those who do not hold a full driving license, as they are easy to obtain.
Generally, in day-to-day life, most authorities do not ask for identification from individuals in a sudden, spot-check type manner, such as by police or security guards, although this may become a concern in instances of stop and search[clarification needed – discuss].
Gibraltar
Main articles: Gibraltar identity card and History of nationality in Gibraltar
Gibraltar has operated an identity card system since 1943.
The cards issued were originally folded cardboard, similar to the wartime UK Identity cards abolished in 1950. There were different colours for British and non-British residents. Gibraltar requires all residents to hold identity cards, which are issued free.
In 1993 the cardboard ID card was replaced with a laminated version. However, although valid as a travel document to the UK, they were not accepted by Spain.
A new version in an EU-compliant format was issued and is valid for use throughout the EU, although as very few are seen, there are sometimes problems when used, even in the UK. ID cards are needed for some financial transactions, but apart from that and to cross the frontier with Spain, they are not in common use.[citation needed]
North America
See also: National identity cards in the Organization of American States
Belize
Called the "Identification Card R.R". Optional, although compulsory for voting and other government transactions. Available also for any Commonwealth country citizen who has lived in Belize for a year without leaving and been at least 2 months in an area where the person has been registered in.[139][140]
Canada
In Canada, different forms of identification documentation are used, but there is no de jure national identity card. The Canadian passport is issued by the federal (national) government, and the provinces and territories issue various documents which can be used for identification purposes. The most commonly used forms of identification within Canada are the health card and driver's licence issued by provincial and territorial governments. The widespread usage of these two documents for identification purposes has made them de facto identity cards.
In Canada, a driver's license usually lists the name, home address, height and date of birth of the bearer. A photograph of the bearer is usually present, as well as additional information, such as restrictions to the bearer's driving licence. The bearer is required by law to keep the address up to date.[citation needed]
A few provinces, such as Québec and Ontario, issue provincial health care cards which contain identification information, such as a photo of the bearer, their home address, and their date of birth. British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Ontario are among the provinces that produce photo identification cards for individuals who do not possess a driving licence, with the cards containing the bearer's photo, home address, and date of birth.[141][142][143]
For travel abroad, a passport is almost always required. There are a few minor exceptions to this rule; required documentation to travel among North American countries is subject to the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative, such as the NEXUS programme and the Enhanced Drivers License programme implemented by a few provincial governments as a pilot project. These programmes have not yet gained widespread acceptance, and the Canadian passport remains the most useful and widely accepted international travel document.
Cayman Islands
Optional and not fully launched. Legislation was enacted in 2022.[144][145][146]
Costa Rica
Main article: Cédula de identidad (Costa Rica)
Every Costa Rican citizen must carry an identity card immediately after turning 18. The card is named Cédula de Identidad and it is issued by the local registrar's office (Registro Civil), an office belonging to the local elections committee (Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones), which in Costa Rica has the same rank as the Supreme Court. Each card has a unique number composed of nine numerical digits, the first of them being the province where the citizen was born (with other significance in special cases such as granted citizenship to foreigners, adopted persons, or in rare cases, old people for whom no birth certificate was processed at birth). After this digit, two blocks of four digits follow; the combination corresponds to the unique identifier of the citizen.
It is widely requested as part of every legal and financial purpose, often requested at payment with credit or debit cards for identification guarantee and requested for buying alcoholic beverages or cigarettes or upon entrance to adults-only places like bars.
The card must be renewed every ten years and is freely issued again if lost. Among the information included there are, on the front, two identification pictures and digitized signature of the owner, identification number (known colloquially just as the cédula), first name, first and second-last names and an optional known as field. On the back, there is again the identification number, birth date, where the citizen issues its vote for national elections or referendums, birthplace, gender, date when it must be renewed and a matrix code that includes all this information and even a digitized fingerprint of the thumb and index finger.
The matrix code is not currently being used nor inspected by any kind of scanner.
Besides this identification card, every vehicle driver must carry a driving licence, an additional card that uses the same identification number as the ID card (Cédula de Identidad) for the driving license number. A passport is also issued with the same identification number used in the ID card. The same situation occurs with the Social Security number; it is the same number used for the ID card.
All non-Costa Rican citizens with a resident status must carry an ID card (Cédula de Residencia), otherwise, a passport and a valid visa. Each resident's ID card has a unique number composed of 12 digits; the first three of them indicate their nationality and the rest of them a sequence used by the immigration authority (called Dirección General de Migración y Extranjería). As with the Costa Rican citizens, their Social Security number and their driver's license (if they have it) would use the same number as in their own resident's ID card.
Dominican Republic
Main article: Cédula de Identidad y Electoral
A "Cédula de Identidad y Electoral" (Identity and Voting Document) is a National ID that is also used for voting in both Presidential and Congressional ballots. Each "Cédula de Identidad y Electoral" has its unique serial number composed by the serial of the municipality of current residence, a sequential number plus a verification digit. This National ID card is issued to all legal residents of adult age. It is usually required to validate job applications, legally binding contracts, official documents, buying/selling real estate, opening a personal bank account, obtaining a Driver's License and the like. It is issued free of charge[147] by the "Junta Central Electoral" (Central Voting Committee) to all Dominicans not living abroad at the time of reaching adulthood (16 years of age) or younger is they are legally emancipated. Foreigners who have taken permanent residence and have not yet applied for Dominican naturalization (i.e., have not opted for Dominican citizenship but have taken permanent residence) are required to pay an issuing tariff and must bring along their non-expired Country of Origin passport and deposit photocopies of their Residential Card and Dominican Red Cross Blood Type card. Foreigners residing on a permanent basis must renew their "Foreign ID" on a 2-, 4-, or 10-year renewal basis (about US$63–US$240, depending on desired renewal period).[148]
El Salvador
In El Salvador, ID Card is called Documento Único de Identidad (DUI) (Unique Identity Document). Every citizen above 18 years must carry this ID for identification purposes at any time. It is not based on a smartcard but on a standard plastic card with two-dimensional bar-coded information with picture and signature.
Guatemala
In January 2009, the National Registry of Persons (RENAP) in Guatemala began offering a new identity document in place of the Cédula de Vecindad (neighborhood identity document) to all Guatemala citizens and foreigners. The new document is called "Documento Personal de Identification" (DPI) (Personal Identity Document). It is based on a smartcard with a chip and includes an electronic signature and several measures against fraud.[149]
Jamaica
Optional, although compulsory for voting and other government transactions.[150] Since 2022 a brand new biometric National ID Card has been unveiled, free of charge for Jamaican citizens.[151][152]
Mexico
Main article: Voter Credential
Not mandatory, but needed in almost all official documents, the CURP is the standardized version of an identity document. It actually could be a printed green wallet-sized card (without a photo) or simply an 18-character identification key printed on a birth or death certificate.[153]
While Mexico has a national identity card (cédula de identitad personal), it is only issued to children aged 4–17.[154]
Unlike most other countries, Mexico has assigned a CURP to nearly all minors, since both the government and most private schools ask parent(s) to supply their children's CURP to keep a data base of all the children. Also, minors must produce their CURP when applying for a passport or being registered at Public Health services by their parent(s).
Most adults need the CURP code too, since it is required for almost all governmental paperwork like tax filings and passport applications. Most companies ask for a prospective employee's CURP, voting card, or passport rather than birth certificates.[citation needed]
To have a CURP issued for a person, a birth certificate or similar proof must be presented to the issuing authorities to prove that the information supplied on the application is true. Foreigners applying for a CURP must produce a certificate of legal residence in Mexico. Foreign-born naturalized Mexican citizens must present their naturalization certificate. On August 21, 2008, the Mexican cabinet passed the National Security Act, which compels all Mexican citizens to have a biometric identity card, called Citizen Identity Card (Cédula de identidad ciudadana) before 2011.[citation needed]
On February 13, 2009, the Mexican government designated the state of Tamaulipas to start procedures for issuing a pilot program of the national Mexican ID card.[citation needed]
Although the CURP is the de jure official identification document in Mexico, the Instituto Nacional Electoral's Voter Credential card is the de facto official identification and proof of legal age for citizens of ages 18 and older.
On July 28, 2009, Mexican President Felipe Calderón, facing the Mexican House of Representatives, announced the launch of the Mexican national Identity card project, which will see the first card issued before the end of 2009.
Panama
The cédula de identidad personal is required at age 12 (cedula juvenil) and age 18. Panamanian citizens must carry their cédula at all times. New biometric national identity cards rolled out in 2019. The card must be renewed every 10 years (every 5 years for those under 18), and it can only be replaced 3 times (with each replacement costing more than the previous one) without requiring a background check, to confirm and verify that the card holder is not selling his or her identity to third parties for human trafficking or other criminal activities. All cards have QR, PDF417, and Code 128 barcodes. The QR code holds all printed (on the front of the card) text information about the card holder, while the PDF417 barcode holds, in JPEG format encoded with Base64, an image of the fingerprint of the left index finger of the card holder. Panamanian biometric/electronic/machine readable ID cards are similar to biometric passports and current European/Czech national ID cards and have only a small PDF417 barcode, with a machine readable area, a contactless smart card RFID chip, and golden contact pads similar to those found in smart card credit cards and SIM cards. The machine-readable code contains all printed text information about the card holder (it replaces the QR code) while both chips (the smart card chip is hidden under the golden contact pads) contain all personal information about the card holder along with a JPEG photo of the card holder, a JPEG photo with the card holder's signature, and another JPEG photo but with all 10 fingerprints of both hands of the card holder. Earlier cards used Code 16K and Code 49 barcodes with magnetic stripes.[155][156]
United States
Main article: Identity documents in the United States
US passport card (front)
US passport card (back)
There is no compulsory federal-level ID card that is issued to all U.S. citizens. U.S. citizens and nationals may obtain passports or U.S. passport cards if they choose to, but this is optional and other alternatives are more popular.
For most people, driver's licenses issued by the respective state and territorial governments have become the de facto identity cards, and are used for many identification purposes, such as when purchasing alcohol and tobacco, opening bank accounts, and boarding planes, along with confirming a voter's identity in states with voter photo identification laws. Individuals who do not drive can obtain an identification card with the same functions from the state agency that issues driver's licenses. In addition, many schools issue student and teacher ID cards.[157]
The United States passed the REAL ID Act on May 11, 2005. The bill requires states to redesign their driver's licenses to comply with federal security standards by December 2009. Federal agencies would then reject licenses or identity cards that do not comply, which would force Americans accessing everything from airplanes to courthouses to have federally mandated cards. At airports, those not having compliant licenses or cards would be redirected to a secondary screening location.[158] As of 2024, every state has implemented some ID that satisfies the standard.[159]
In 2006, the U.S. State Department studied the idea of issuing passports with radio-frequency identification, or RFID, chips embedded in them.
The United States passport verifies both personal identity and citizenship, but is not mandatory for citizens to possess within the country and is issued by the U.S. State Department on a discretionary basis.
Since February 1, 2008, U.S. citizens may apply for passport cards, in addition to the usual passport books. Although their main purpose is for land and sea travel within North America, the passport card may also be accepted by federal authorities (such as for domestic air travel or entering federal buildings). The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) accepts the passport card as an identity document at airport security checkpoints.[160]
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services allows the U.S. passport card to be used in the Employment Eligibility Verification Form I-9 (form) process.[161] The passport card is considered a "List A" document that may be presented by newly hired employees during the employment eligibility verification process to show work authorized status. "List A" documents are those used by employees to prove both identity and work authorization when completing the Form I-9.
The basic document needed to establish a person's identity and citizenship in order to obtain a passport is a birth certificate. These are issued by either the U.S. state of birth or by the U.S. Department of State for overseas births to U.S. citizens. A child born in the U.S. is in nearly all cases (except for children of foreign diplomats) automatically a U.S. citizen. The parents of a child born overseas to U.S. citizens can report the birth to the U.S. embassy/consulate to obtain a Consular Report of Birth Abroad.[162]
Social Security numbers (SSNs) and cards are issued by the U.S. Social Security Administration for tracking Social Security taxes and benefits. They have become the de facto national identification number for federal and state taxation, private financial services, and identification with various companies. SSNs do not establish citizenship because they can also be issued to permanent residents. They typically can only be part of the establishment of a person's identity; a photo ID that verifies date of birth is also usually requested.
A mix of documents can be presented to, for instance, verify one's legal eligibility to take a job within the United States. Identity and citizenship is established by presenting a passport alone, but this must be accompanied by a Social Security card for taxation ID purposes. A driver's license/state ID establishes identity alone, but does not establish citizenship, as these can be provided to non-citizens as well. In this case, an applicant without a passport may sign an affidavit of citizenship or be required to present a birth certificate. They must also submit their Social Security number.
"Residency" within a certain U.S. jurisdiction, such as a voting precinct, can be proven if the driver's license or state ID has the home address printed on it corresponding to that jurisdiction. Utility bills or other pieces of official printed mail can also suffice for this purpose. In the case of voter registration, citizenship must also be proven with a passport, birth certificate, or signed citizenship affidavit.
The Selective Service System has in the past, in times of a military draft, issued an identification card for men that were eligible for the draft.
Oceania
Australia
Main article: Identity documents of Australia
Australia does not have a national identity card. Instead, various identity documents are used or required to prove a person's identity, whether for government or commercial purposes.
Currently, driver licences and photo cards, both issued by the states and territories, are the most widely used personal identification documents in Australia. Additionally, the Australia Post Keypass identity card, issued by Australia Post, can be used by people who do not have an Australian drivers licence or an Australian state and territory issued identity photo card.
Photo cards are also called "Proof of Age Cards" or similar and can be issued to people as another type of identity. Identification indicating age is commonly required to purchase alcohol and tobacco and to enter nightclubs and gambling venues.
Other important identity documents include a passport, an official birth certificate, an official marriage certificate, cards issued by government agencies (typically social security cards), some cards issued by commercial organisations (e.g., a debit or credit card), and utility accounts. Often, some combination of identity documents is required, such as an identity document linking a name, photograph and signature (typically photo-ID in the form of a driver licence or passport), evidence of operating in the community, and evidence of a current residential address.
New alcohol laws in the state of Queensland require some Brisbane-based pubs and bars to scan ID documents against a database of people who should be denied alcohol, for which foreign passports and driver's licences are not valid.[163]
Marshall Islands
An "Identification Card" seems to exists among citizens of the Marshall Islands, but little information is found on these documents.[citation needed]
Micronesia
National Identity cards, called "FSM Voters National Identity card", are issued on an optional basis, free of charge. The Identity Cards were introduced in 2005.[164]
New Zealand
New Zealand 18+ card
New Zealand does not have an official ID card. The most commonly carried form of identification is a driver licence issued by the Transport Agency.
Other forms of special purpose identification documents are issued by different government departments, for example a Firearms Licence issued to gun owners by the Police and the SuperGold card issued to elderly people by the Ministry of Social Development.
For purchasing alcohol or tobacco, the only legal forms of identification is a New Zealand or foreign passport, a New Zealand driver licences and a Kiwi Access Card (formerly known as 18+ cards)[165] from the Hospitality Association of New Zealand.[166] Overseas driver licences are not legal for this purpose.
For opening a bank account, each bank has its own list of documents that it will accept. Generally speaking, banks accept a foreign or NZ passport, a NZ Firearms Licence, or a foreign ID card by itself. If the customer do not have these documents, they will need to produce two different documents on the approved list (for example a driver licence and a marriage certificate).[167]
Palau
Republic of Palau Identification Card (front)
Republic of Palau Identification Card (rear)
Republic of Palau Identification Cards are primarily issued to foreign nationals whom are not eligible to acquire a Palau passport or driver's license, under the Digital Residency Act. Foreign nationals are required to undergo a sanctions check.
Papua New Guinea
E-National ID cards were rolled out in 2015.[168]
Solomon Islands
"National Voter's Identity card" are optional upon request.[169][170]
Tonga
Tonga's National ID Card was first issued in 2010, and it is optional, along with the driver's licenses and passports. Either one of these are mandatory for to vote though. Applicants need to be 14 years of age or older to apply for a National ID Card.[171]
Vanuatu
National Identity Cards are being issued since October 2017. Plans for rolling out biometric cards were due for the late 2018.[172][173]
South America
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Argentina
Main article: Documento Nacional de Identidad (Argentina)
Current front side of Argentine DNI Card
Documento Nacional de Identidad (DNI; "National Identity Document") is the main identity document for Argentine residents. It is issued as a card (tarjeta DNI) at birth to all people born in the country (and hence citizens), and to foreigners who register as residents with the National Directorate of Migrations. It must be updated at 8 and 14 years of age, and thereafter every 15 years. The documents are produced at a special plant in Buenos Aires by the Argentine national registry of people (ReNaPer).[174] The National Identity Document (DNI) is the sole instrument for personal identification and is mandatory. Its format and use are regulated by Law No. 17671 on Identification, Registration, and Classification of the National Human Potential, enacted in 1968, replacing the enrolment document issued to men undergoing mandatory military service and libreta cívica given to women upon turning 18.
According to this law, the DNI cannot be substituted by any other document for legal purposes. It is required for voting, which is mandatory, and for identification before judicial authorities. The Argentine DNI is also required for conducting procedures with state authorities, and entitles adult bearers to work within the country.
From November 4, 2009, as part of a modernization and digitization process of national documents, a new type of DNI with both a booklet and a card was issued; either may be used for most purposes, but the booklet had to be used for voting.
The DNI booklet had a light blue cover with laser printing for the citizen's unique number and silver prints for the rest of the presentation. Internally, it had an identical design to the card format but included spaces for marital status, address changes, organ donations, and the stamping of the DNI after voting in national elections. The card was entirely laminated and contained all the individual's data, including a photograph and fingerprint impression.
From 2011, the DNI underwent further changes, with no booklet and a different card design, a higher-quality plastic card to be used for all purposes. The booklet was no longer required for voting by holders of the still-valid 2009 version. Since April 1, 2017, the DNI card is the only valid identification document. Taxpayers also have a Unique Tax Identification Code (CUIT).
In December 2023, the National Registry of Persons of Argentina (Renaper), a subsidiary of the Ministry of the Interior, introduced the Biometric National Identity Document (DNI). It adheres to international standards of security, with an embedded electronic chip and a QR code for electronic validation, identity verification, digital functions, and advanced security measures.
Manufactured using laser technology on polycarbonate, a durable material, the new document has up-to-date physical security features to enhance visual verification and prevent counterfeiting.[175]
Brazil
Main article: Brazilian identity card
Model of the Brazilian identity card, as of 2023
In Brazil, at the age of 18, all Brazilian citizens are supposed to be issued a cédula de identidade (ID card), usually known by its number, the Registro Geral (RG), Portuguese for "General Registry". The cards are needed to obtain a job, to vote, and to use credit cards. Foreigners living in Brazil have a different kind of ID card. Since the RG is not unique, being issued in a state-basis, in many places the CPF (the Brazilian revenue agency's identification number) is used as a replacement. The current Brazilian driver's license contains both the RG and the CPF, and as such can be used as an identification card as well.
There are plans in course to replace the current RG system with a new Documento Nacional de Identificação (National Identification Document), which will be electronic (accessible by a mobile application) and national in scope, and to change the current ID card to a new smartcard.[176][177]
Colombia
Main article: Colombian identity card
Colombian electronic identity document, front
Colombian electronic identity document, back
Upon turning 18 every resident in Colombia must obtain an identity document (Spanish: Cédula de Ciudadanía or Documento de Identidad), which is the only document that proves the identity of a person for legal purposes. ID cards must be carried at all times and must be presented to the police upon request. If the individual fails to present the ID card upon request by the police or the military, he/she is most likely going to be detained at police station even if he/she is not a suspect of any wrongdoing. ID cards are needed to obtain employment, open bank accounts, obtain a passport, driver's license, military card, to enroll in educational institutions, vote or enter public buildings including airports and courthouses; failure to produce ID is a misdemeanor punishable with a fine. ID duplicate costs must be assumed by citizens. Every resident over the age of 14 is issued an identity card called (Tarjeta de Identidad)
Front of the Colombian identity document required for minors
Reverse of the Colombian identity document required for minors
Chile
Chilean Cédula de Identidad
Every resident of Chile over the age of 18 must have and carry at all times their ID Card called Cédula de Identidad issued by the Civil Registry and Identification Service of Chile.
The identity card is the official document that proves the identity of a Chilean person. Among the data it contains is the full name, Unique National Role (RUN) and sex, in addition to the photo, signature and fingerprint. Anyone who wants their profession to appear on their identity card must be registered in the professional registry.
This is the only official form of identification for residents in Chile and is widely used and accepted as such. It is necessary for every contract, most bank transactions, voting, driving (along with the driver's licence) and other public and private situations. Biometrics collection is mandatory.[178]
Peru
Main article: Documento Nacional de Identidad (Peru)
In Peru, it is mandatory for all citizens over the age of 18, whether born inside or outside the territory of the Republic, to obtain a National Identity Document (Documento Nacional de Identidad). The DNI is a public, personal and untransferable document.
The DNI is the only means of identification permitted for participating in any civil, legal, commercial, administrative, and judicial acts. It is also required for voting and must be presented to authorities upon request. The DNI can be used as a passport to travel to all South American countries that are members of UNASUR.
The DNI is issued by the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status (RENIEC). For Peruvians abroad, service is provided through the Consulates of Peru, in accordance with Articles 26, 31 and 8 of Law No. 26,497.
The document is card-sized as defined by ISO format ID-1 (prior to 2005 the DNI was size ISO ID-2; renewal of the card due to the size change was not mandatory, nor did previously-emitted cards lose validity). The front of the card presents photographs of the holder's face, their name, date and place of birth (the latter in coded form), gender and marital status; the bottom quarter consists of machine-readable text. Three dates are listed as well; the date the citizen was first registered at RENIEC; the date the document was issued; and the expiration date of the document. The back of the DNI features the holder's address (including district, department and/or province) and voting group. Eight voting record blocks are successively covered with metallic labels when the citizen presents themselves at their voting group on voting days. The back also denotes whether the holder is an organ donor, presents the holder's right index finger print, a PDF417 bar code, and a 1D bar code.
Uruguay
Main article: Documento de Identidad (Uruguay)
In Uruguay, the identity card (documento de identidad) is issued by the Ministry of the Interior and the National Civil Identification Bureau (Dirección Nacional de Identificación Civil | DNIC).[179]
It is mandatory and essential for several activities at either governmental or private levels. The document is mandatory for all inhabitants of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, whether they are native citizens, legal citizens, or resident aliens in the country, even for children as young as 45 days old.
It is a laminated card 9 cm (3.5 in) wide and approximately 5 cm (2.0 in) high, dominated by the color blue, showing the flag in the background with the photo of the owner, the number assigned by the DNIC (including a self-generated or check digit), full name, and the corresponding signature along with biometrics. The card is bilingual in Spanish and Portuguese.[180]
Identity cards are required for most formal transactions, from credit card purchases to any identity validation, proof of age, and so on. The identity card is not to be confused with the Credencial Cívica, which is used exclusively for voting.[181]
Venezuela
Current ID card issued by the government of Venezuela
Identity cards in Venezuela consist of a plastic-laminated paper which contains the national ID number (Cédula de Identidad) as well as a color-photo and the last names, given names, date of birth, right thumb print, signature, and marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed) of the bearer. It also contains the documents expedition and expiration date. Two different prefixes can be found before the ID number: "V" for Venezuelans and "E" for foreigners (extranjeros in Spanish). This distinction is also shown in the document at the very bottom by a bold all-caps typeface displaying either the word VENEZOLANO or EXTRANJERO, respectively.
Despite Venezuela being the second country in the Americas (after the United States) to adopt a biometric passport, the current Venezuelan ID document is remarkably low-security, even for regional standards. It can hardly be called a card. The paper inside the laminated cover contains only two security measures, first, it is a special type of government-issued paper, and second, it has microfilaments in the paper that glow in the presence of UV light. The laminated cover itself is very simplistic and quite large for the paper it covers and the photo, although is standard sized (3x3.5 cm) is rather blurred. Government officials in charge of issuing the document openly recommend each individual to cut the excess plastic off and re-laminate the document in order to protect it from bending. The requirements for getting a Venezuelan identity document are quite relaxed and Venezuela lacks high-security in its birth certificates and other documents that give claim to citizenship.
See also
Aadhaar
Access badge
Anthropometry
National biometric id card
Campus card
Homeland card
Home Return Permit
ID card printer
Identity Cards Act 2006
List of identity card policies by country
Magnetic stripe card
NO2ID
Pass laws
Physical security
Police certificate
Proximity card
Self-sovereign identity
Warrant card
Notes
The legal acquis has been identified as EEA-relevant by the EU Commission, which makes it under scrutiny for incorporation into the EEA Agreement by Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. However, the legal basis rely on Article 21 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, an article which is not reflected in the EEA Agreement.[65]
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"Al via oggi la nuova carta di identità, ecco cosa bisogna sapere". Smtvsanmarino.sm. January 12, 2017. Retrieved 2019-02-24.
Serbian new biometric ID card Archived May 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (in Serbian)
Конзуларне земље – визе за иностранство
EUobserver / Serbia and Kosovo sign first post-independence agreement
Kosovo
Ministria e Punëve të Jashtme
Effective October 1, 2016 – 14 years. "On amendment of certain laws of Ukraine as to documents certifying Ukrainian nationality, identifying person or its special status, aimed at EU visa liberalization".
"New digital ID scheme to be rolled out across UK". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2025-09-26.
Alan Travis (May 4, 2009). "Pilots refuse to take part in national identity card trials". The Guardian. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 2021-07-05.
"ID card database destroyed". Home Office. February 10, 2011. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
"Getting a New Belize ID Card and Closing Accounts". August 7, 2014.
"New Voter's ID ready for pick up on Ambergris Caye". March 9, 2019.
"Photo BC Services Card". Ministry of Citizens Services. Province of British Columbia. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
"Non-driver ID and discount". SGI. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
"Ontario Photo Card". ontario.ca. Retrieved 2018-09-25.
Klein, Michael (December 13, 2022). "Government passes ID card legislation". Cayman Compass. Retrieved 2023-07-13.
Hersey, Frank (December 15, 2022). "Cayman Islands pass digital ID and ID card bills, Jamaica begins 'zero-fail' pilot". | Biometric Update. Retrieved 2023-07-13.
Ragoonath, Reshma (June 8, 2023). "Partial commencement of national ID law set for mid-June". Cayman Compass. Retrieved 2023-07-13.
"Junta Central Electoral de la República Dominicana – JCE > Dependencias > Cedulación > Tasas". JCE. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-28.
"¿Qué documentos se requieren para que los extranjeros obtengan su Cédula de Identidad ?". Soporte.jce.gob.do. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-28.
"RENAP - INICIO | RENAP". Registro Nacional de los Personos (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-07-13.
"No ID, no access – J'cans will need National Identification card to access gov't goods, services". September 8, 2017.
"National ID Card Unveiled – Jamaica Information Service".
"Jamaica Will Issue Its First-Ever National ID Card This Year". May 31, 2022.
"Curp gratis: Print your curp México". Archived from the original on 2014-12-27. Retrieved 2018-12-15.
"PREGUNTAS FRECUENTES - CÉDULA DE IDENTIDAD PERSONAL (REGISTRO DE MENORES DE EDAD)". Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. Retrieved 2018-12-15.
"Cedulacion". Archived from the original on 2010-07-28. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
"Repartirán 20 mil cédulas inteligentes antes de las elecciones 2019". January 26, 2018.
"Intro". Student-ID.net. Archived from the original on 2003-07-13. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
"Why some states won't comply with REAL ID requirements". Retrieved 2023-10-23.
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"USCIS – USCIS Informs The Public That New Passport Card Is Acceptable For Employment Eligibility Verification". Uscis.gov. Retrieved 2012-07-01.
"Birth of U.S. Citizens Abroad". May 29, 2020. Retrieved 2020-10-13.
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https://evanz.co.nz/members/news-amp-announcements/new-look-kiwi-access-card-replace-18-card-january-2019 Archived 2019-06-16 at the Wayback Machine New Look Kiwi Access card to replace 18+ card from January 2019
"Sale and Supply of Alcohol Regulations 2013 (SR 2013/459) (As at 01 April 2020) Evidence of age documents – New Zealand Legislation".
"What kinds of proof of ID will the bank accept?". Citizens Advice Bureau. October 6, 2021. Retrieved 2021-11-08.
"PNG minister defends controversial national identification program". ABC News. June 26, 2018.
"Solomon Islands Electoral Commission issues strong warning on ID card buying, selling". September 26, 2018.
"Solomons electoral office stops issuing voter ID cards over corruption concerns". September 25, 2018.
"Applications for a National ID Card to resume 28 March". Ministry of Information and Communications, Government of Tonga. March 25, 2011. Archived from the original on 2017-10-24. Retrieved 2017-12-10.
"National Id Cards Issued". October 31, 2017.
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"Re.Na.Per – Ministerio del Interior – República Argentina". Nuevo DNI. Archived from the original on 2013-10-13. Retrieved 2013-10-28.
"El Renaper lanza el nuevo DNI electrónico con chip que se adapta a los más altos estándares internacionales". Argentina.gob.ar (in Spanish). December 1, 2023. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
"Governo lança documento de identidade unificada" [Government launches unified identity document]. R7.com (in Portuguese). Agência Brasil. February 5, 2018. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
"Correios vão emitir Documento Nacional de Identificação" [Correios will issue National Identification Document]. R7.com (in Portuguese). Agência Brasil. July 4, 2018. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
"Cédula de identidad y Pasaporte".
"Cédula de Identidad Renovación | Portal del Estado Uruguayo" (in Spanish). Tramites.gub.uy. March 23, 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
"nuevo sistema para la cédula de identidad". El País. Uruguay. May 4, 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-20.
Redacción. "Este lunes vence el plazo para sacar la credencial cívica y realizar traslados departamentales". El Observador. Archived from the original on 2024-04-25. Retrieved 2024-04-27.
Further reading
Kruger, Stephen. "Documentary Identification in the Nascent American Police State" (2012). [1].
Kruger, Stephen. "Police Demands for Hong Kong Identity Cards" (2012). [2].
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Identity documents.
PRADO – Public Register of European Travel and ID Documents Online Archived 2017-10-02 at the Wayback Machine
Telegraph story: the case for and against identity cards
Scotsman story: ID Cards will lead to "massive fraud"
PRADO Glossary – EU site detailing document security technologies (security features)
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Geneva Conference, Geneva Protocol (disambiguation), Geneva Accords (1988), Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, or Universal Copyright Convention.
A facsimile of the signature-and-seals page of the 1864 Geneva Convention, which established humane rules of war
The original document in single pages, 1864[1]
The Geneva Conventions is a term used to collectively refer to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their two Additional Protocols, which form the core of international humanitarian law (IHL) and establish international legal standards for the treatment of non-combatants in war. The Geneva Conventions of 1949 consist of four agreements, negotiated in the aftermath of the World War II (1939−1945), which updated the terms of the two 1929 treaties and added two new conventions. Aside from the UN Charter, the Geneva Conventions are among the most widely ratified international agreements. The Geneva Conventions define the basic rights of civilians, prisoners of war, and military personnel; establish protections for the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked; and provide humanitarian protections for civilians in and around war zones.[2]
The Geneva Conventions define the rights and protections afforded to those non-combatants who fulfill the criteria of being protected persons.[3] The 1949 conventions were ratified, in their entirety or with reservations, by 196 countries.[4] The Geneva Conventions concern only protected non-combatants in war. The use of conventional weapons in wartime is addressed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, while the use of biological and chemical weapons in international armed conflicts is addressed by the 1925 Geneva Protocol.
Much of the IHL contained in the Geneva Conventions has become customary international law, and therefore would apply to all states and non-state armed groups, even those that are not a party to the Geneva Conventions.
For grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, states are obligated to establish and exercise universal jurisdiction. The 1949 Geneva Conventions all contain provisions (Articles 49, 50, 129, and 146) obligating parties to search for alleged violators, regardless of their nationality or place of offense, and to either try violators before their own courts or to hand them over to another party for trial. This principle of universal jurisdiction is rooted in the belief that grave breaches of the Geneva Convention are such serious crimes that all states have an obligation to bring those responsible to justice.
History
The progression of the Geneva Conventions from 1864 to 1949
A Red Cross poster from the First World War
The Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, and medical aid available to help these soldiers. As a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino, in 1862, on the horrors of war.[5] His wartime experiences inspired Dunant to propose:
A permanent relief agency for humanitarian aid in times of war
A government treaty recognizing the neutrality of the agency and allowing it to provide aid in a war zone
The former proposal led to the establishment of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Geneva. The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention, which was the first codified international treaty that covered the sick and wounded soldiers on the battlefield. On 22 August 1864, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, and Mexico, to attend an official diplomatic conference. Overall, 16 countries sent a total of 26 delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field.” Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention:[6][7]
Swiss Confederation
Grand Duchy of Baden
Kingdom of Belgium
Kingdom of Denmark
Kingdom of Spain
French Empire
Grand Duchy of Hesse
Kingdom of Italy
Kingdom of the Netherlands
Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves
Kingdom of Prussia
Kingdom of Württemberg
For both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became corecipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901.[8][9]
On 20 October 1868 the first unsuccessful attempt to expand the 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the 'Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War' an attempt was initiated to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention and to extend them to maritime warfare. The Articles were signed but were only ratified by the Netherlands and the United States of America.[10] The Netherlands later withdrew their ratification.[11] The protection of the victims of maritime warfare was later realized by the third Hague Convention of 1899 and the tenth Hague Convention of 1907.[12]
In 1906, thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government. On 6 July 1906 it resulted in the adoption of the "Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field", which improved and supplemented, for the first time, the 1864 Convention.[13] It remained in force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to the 1949 Geneva Conventions.[14]
The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on 27 July 1929. One, the "Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field," was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864.[12][15] The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The "Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague; rather it supplemented them.[16][17]
There was considerable debate over whether the Geneva Convention should prohibit indiscriminate forms of warfare, such as aerial bombings, nuclear bombings and starvation, but no agreement was reached on those forms of violence.[18]
Inspired by the wave of humanitarian and pacifistic enthusiasm following World War II and the outrage towards the war crimes disclosed by the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, a series of conferences were held in 1949 reaffirming, expanding and updating the prior Geneva and Hague Conventions. It yielded four distinct conventions:
The First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field" was the fourth update of the original 1864 convention and replaced the 1929 convention on the same subject matter.[19]
The Second Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea" replaced the Hague Convention (X) of 1907.[20] It was the first Geneva Convention on the protection of the victims of maritime warfare and mimicked the structure and provisions of the First Geneva Convention.[12]
The Third Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" replaced the 1929 Geneva Convention that dealt with prisoners of war.[21]
The Fourth Geneva Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War" was the first Geneva Convention not to deal with combatants. The 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions had already contained some provisions on the protection of civilians and occupied territory. Article 154 specifically provides that the Fourth Geneva Convention is supplementary to these provisions in the Hague Conventions.[22]
The third protocol emblem, also known as the Red Crystal
Despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. The nature of armed conflicts had changed with the beginning of the Cold War era, leading many to believe that the 1949 Geneva Conventions were addressing a largely extinct reality:[23] on the one hand, most armed conflicts had become internal, or civil wars, while on the other, most wars had become increasingly asymmetric. Modern armed conflicts were inflicting an increasingly higher toll on civilians, which brought the need to provide civilian persons and objects with tangible protections in time of combat, bringing a much needed update to the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.
In light of these developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections. In 2005, a third brief Protocol was added establishing an additional protective sign for medical services, the Red Crystal, as an alternative to the ubiquitous Red Cross and Red Crescent emblems, for those countries that find them objectionable.
Commentaries
The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949: Commentary (The Commentaries) is a series of four volumes of books published between 1952 and 1958 containing commentaries to each of the four Geneva Conventions. The series was edited by Jean Pictet who was the vice-president of the ICRC. The Commentaries are often relied upon to provide authoritative interpretation of the articles.[24]
Contents
A political map of the world
Parties to Geneva Conventions and Protocols
Parties to GC I–IV and P I–III
Parties to GC I–IV and P I–II
Parties to GC I–IV and P I and III
Parties to GC I–IV and P I
Parties to GC I–IV and P III
Parties to GC I–IV and no P
The Geneva Conventions are rules that apply only in times of armed conflict and seek to protect people who are not or are no longer taking part in hostilities.
The First Geneva Convention dealt with the treatment of wounded and sick armed forces in the field.[25] The Second Geneva Convention dealt with the sick, wounded, and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea.[26][27] The Third Geneva Convention dealt with the treatment of prisoners of war during times of conflict.[28] The Fourth Geneva Convention dealt with the treatment of civilians and their protection during wartime.[29]
Individuals who fulfill the criteria of protected persons in international armed conflicts are protected by the 1949 conventions. Those not listed as protected persons in such conflicts are instead protected by international human rights law and general treaties concerning the legal status of aliens in belligerent nations.[3]
Geneva Conventions of 1949
In international law and diplomacy the term convention refers to an international agreement, or treaty.
First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field" (first adopted in 1864,[30] revised in 1906,[31] 1929[32] and 1949);[33]
Second Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea" (first adopted in 1949, successor of the Hague Convention (X) of 1907);[34]
Third Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" (first adopted in 1929,[35] last revision in 1949);[36]
Fourth Geneva Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War" (first adopted in 1949 based on parts of the Hague Conventions (II and IV) of 1899 and 1907).[37]
With two Geneva Conventions revised and adopted and two added in 1949, the whole is referred to as the "Geneva Conventions of 1949" or simply the "Geneva Conventions". Usually only the Geneva Conventions of 1949 are referred to as First, Second, Third or Fourth Geneva Conventions. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, by 196 countries.[4]
1977 Additional Protocols
The 1949 Geneva Conventions have been amended with three optional protocols:
Protocol I (1977) relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts;[38]
Protocol II (1977) relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts;[39]
Protocol III (2005) relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem.[40]
Application
The Geneva Conventions apply at times of war and armed conflict to governments who have ratified its terms. The details of applicability are spelled out in common articles 2 and 3.
Common Article 2 relating to international armed conflict (IAC)
Common Article 2 states that the Geneva Conventions apply to all the cases of international armed conflict (IAC), where at least one of the warring nations has ratified the Conventions. Primarily:
The Conventions apply to all cases of declared war between signatory nations. This is the original sense of applicability, which predates the 1949 version.
The Conventions apply to all cases of armed conflict between two or more signatory nations. This language was added in 1949 to accommodate situations that have all the characteristics of war without the existence of a formal declaration of war, such as a police action.[27]
The Conventions apply to a signatory nation even if the opposing nation is not a signatory, but only if the opposing nation "accepts and applies the provisions" of the Conventions.[27]
Article 1 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions further clarifies that armed conflict against colonial domination and foreign occupation also qualifies as an international conflict.
When the criteria of international armed conflict have been met, the full protections of the Conventions are considered to apply.
Common Article 3 relating to non-international armed conflict (NIAC)
Common Article 3 states that the certain minimum rules of war apply to armed conflicts "not of an international character."[41] The International Committee of the Red Cross has explained that this language describes non-international armed conflict (NIAC) "where at least one Party is not a State."[42] For example, it would apply to conflicts between state forces and non-state actors (NSAs), or between two NSAs, or to other conflicts that have all the characteristics of war, whether carried out within the confines of one country or not.[43]
There are two criteria to distinguish non-international armed conflicts from lower forms of violence. The level of violence has to be of certain intensity, for example when the state cannot contain the situation with regular police forces. Also, involved non-state groups need to have a certain level of organization, like a military command structure.[44]
The other Geneva Conventions are not applicable in this situation but only the provisions contained within Article 3,[27] and additionally within the language of Protocol II. The rationale for the limitation is to avoid conflict with the rights of Sovereign States that were not part of the treaties. When the provisions of this article apply, it states that:[45]
Persons taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention, or any other cause, shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, without any adverse distinction founded on race, colour, religion or faith, sex, birth or wealth, or any other similar criteria. To this end, the following acts are and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever with respect to the above-mentioned persons:
violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture;
taking of hostages;
outrages upon dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment; and
the passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous judgment pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all the judicial guarantees which are recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples.
The wounded and sick shall be collected and cared for.
During the negotiation of the Geneva Conventions, France and Britain were initially staunchly opposed to Common Article 3. However, to save face during negotiations and make strategic concessions, France and Britain deliberately introduced ambiguous language in the text of Common Article 3 that made it easy for states to avoid the obligations of the rule.[46] As a consequence, Common Article 3 only concerns with humane treatment and does not deal with methods and means of hostilities,[47] such as bombings committed by non-state armed groups or state forces against civilian targets in the Algerian War and the Troubles.
On 7 February 2002, President Bush adopted the view that Common Article 3 did not protect al Qaeda prisoners because the United States-al Qaeda conflict was not "not of an international character."[48] The Supreme Court of the United States invalidated the Bush Administration view of Common Article 3, in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, by ruling that Common Article Three of the Geneva Conventions applies to detainees in the "War on Terror", and that the Guantanamo military commission process used to try these suspects was in violation of U.S. and international law.[49] In response to Hamdan, Congress passed the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which President Bush signed into law on 17 October 2006. Like the Military Commissions Act of 2006, its successor the Military Commissions Act of 2009 explicitly forbids the invocation of the Geneva Conventions "as a basis for a private right of action."[50]
"... Common Article 3 continues the conventional practice (reflected in both the 'Lieber' and 'The Hague' provisions) of according humanitarian protections only to 'belligerents' who defer to the laws and customs of war: not to 'insurrectionists' who defy these norms from the very outset of hostilities. Observance of the rules of warfare is what elevates an 'insurrectionist' to the legally cognizable status of 'belligerent' under the 'International law of war'; nothing short of such an 'observance' suffices to effect this transformation from the infra legal to legal."[51][self-published source]
IAC or NIAC classification
Whether the conflict is an IAC or a NIAC or both depends on the nature and circumstances of the situation. Since there is a general prohibition against the use of force between States (as is reflected within article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter) with respect to Common Article 2, it is generally presumed that any use of such military force which is governed by international humanitarian law is attributable to deliberate belligerent intent.[52]
Regarding Common Article 3, the International Committee of the Red Cross in its 2016 commentary stated the provision includes not just a conflict between territorial government forces and NSAs or NSAs themselves, but also a foreign military intervention against a NSA only if the territorial state consents to such intervention in its territory. Should the intervening country do so without the consent of the territorial state or in support of a NSA against that state, then Common Article 2 applies.[52][53]
For example, U.S. intervention in the Syrian civil war became both an IAC with Syria and a NIAC with the Islamic State because the U.S. intervened in Syrian territory without the former's consent.[53] On the other hand, Russia intervened in Syrian territory against the Free Syrian Army upon invitation by Syria, making Russia's participation subject only to Common Article 3 and therefore Protocol II (which Russia ratified on 29 September 1989).[52][54]
The U.S.-led NATO invasion of Afghanistan from October 7 to December 17, 2001was initially an IAC because it waged war against the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan under Taliban rule. Once the new Karzai administration was established and recognized internationally, the conflict changed from an IAC to a NIAC, with NATO troops under International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and Resolute Support Mission (RSM) auspices assisting the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan with its consent in battling Taliban insurgents.[52] In contrast, the Soviet–Afghan War was an IAC because the Soviet Union invaded the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) to remove Afghan communist leader Hafizullah Amin from power, then installed puppet leader Babrak Karmal, who "invited" Soviet troops to intervene against the Afghan mujahideen fighters.[55]
While non-state armed groups are automatically presumed to engage in NIACs, they also can cross into the threshold of an IAC. The 2020 ICRC commentary on the Third Geneva Convention requires two elements for this classification: "the group must in fact fight on behalf of that Party" and "that Party must accept both the fighting role of the group and the fact that the fighting is done on its behalf." It further states that "[w]here a Party to a conflict has overall control over the militia, volunteer corps or organized resistance movement that has a fighting function and fights on the State's behalf, a relationship of belonging for the purposes of Article 4A(2)[56] exists."[57] For example, the Viet Cong was under effective control and direction by North Vietnam during the Vietnam War, therefore Common Article 2 solely applied to the conflict.[58][59]
Enforcement
Protecting powers
See also: Protecting power
The term protecting power has a specific meaning under these Conventions. A protecting power is a state that is not taking part in the armed conflict, but that has agreed to look after the interests of a state that is a party to the conflict. The protecting power is a mediator enabling the flow of communication between the parties to the conflict. The protecting power also monitors the implementation of these Conventions, such as by visiting the zone of conflict and prisoners of war. The protecting power must act as an advocate for prisoners, the wounded, and civilians.
Grave breaches
The logo of International Criminal Court
Not all violations of the treaty are treated equally. The most serious crimes are termed grave breaches and provide a legal definition of a war crime. Grave breaches of the Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions include the following acts if committed against a person specifically protected by the conventions:[60]
willful killing, torture or inhumane treatment, including biological experiments
willfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health
compelling a protected person to serve in the armed forces of a hostile power
willfully depriving a protected person of the right to a fair trial if accused of a war crime.
Also considered grave breaches of the Fourth Geneva Convention are the following:[60]
taking of hostages
extensive destruction and appropriation of property not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly
unlawful deportation, transfer, or confinement.
Nations that are party to these treaties must enact and enforce legislation penalizing any of these crimes. Nations are also obligated to search for persons alleged to commit these crimes, or persons having ordered them to be committed, and to bring them to trial regardless of their nationality and regardless of the place where the crimes took place.[61]
The principle of universal jurisdiction also applies to the enforcement of grave breaches when the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) asserts its authority and jurisdiction from the UN Charter to apply universal jurisdiction. The UNSC did this when it established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia to investigate and prosecute alleged violations.
Right to a fair trial when no crime is alleged
Soldiers, as prisoners of war, will not receive a trial unless the allegation of a war crime has been made. According to Article 43 of the 1949 Conventions, soldiers are employed for the purpose of serving in war; engaging in armed conflict is legitimate, and does not constitute a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions.[62] Should a soldier be arrested by belligerent forces, they are to be considered "lawful combatants" and afforded the protectorate status of a prisoner of war (POW) until the cessation of the conflict.[63] Human rights law applies to any incarcerated individual, including the right to a fair trial.[64]
Charges may only be brought against an enemy POW after a fair trial, but the initial crime being accused must be an explicit violation of the accords, more severe than simply fighting against the captor in battle.[64] No trial will otherwise be afforded to a captured soldier, as deemed by human rights law. This element of the convention has been confused during past incidents of detainment of US soldiers by North Vietnam, where the regime attempted to try all imprisoned soldiers in court for committing grave breaches, on the incorrect assumption that their sole existence as enemies of the state violated international law.[64]
Legacy
Although warfare has changed dramatically since the Geneva Conventions of 1949, they are still considered the cornerstone of contemporary international humanitarian law.[65] They protect combatants who find themselves hors de combat, and they protect civilians caught up in the zone of war. These treaties came into play for all recent non-international armed conflicts, including the War in Afghanistan,[66] the Iraq War, the invasion of Chechnya (1994-2017)[67] and the Russo-Georgian War. The Geneva Conventions also protect those affected by non-international armed conflicts such as the Syrian civil war.[dubious – discuss]
The lines between combatants and civilians have blurred when the actors are not exclusively High Contracting Parties (HCP).[68] Since the fall of the Soviet Union, an HCP often is faced with a non-state actor,[69] as argued by General Wesley Clark in 2007.[70] Examples of such conflict include the Sri Lankan Civil War, the Sudanese Civil War, and the Colombian Armed Conflict, as well as most military engagements of the US since 2000.
Some scholars hold that Common Article 3 deals with these situations, supplemented by Protocol II (1977).[dubious – discuss] These set out minimum legal standards that must be followed for internal conflicts. International tribunals, particularly the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), have clarified international law in this area.[71] In the 1999 Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic judgement, the ICTY ruled that grave breaches apply not only to international conflicts, but also to internal armed conflict.[dubious – discuss] Further, those provisions are considered customary international law.
Controversy has arisen over the US designation of irregular opponents as "unlawful enemy combatants" (see also unlawful combatant), especially in the U.S. Supreme Court judgments over the Guantanamo Bay detention camp brig facility Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, Hamdan v. Rumsfeld and Rasul v. Bush ,[72] and later Boumediene v. Bush. President George W. Bush, aided by Attorneys-Generals John Ashcroft and Alberto Gonzales and General Keith B. Alexander, claimed the power, as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, to determine that any person, including an American citizen, who is suspected of being a member, agent, or associate of Al Qaeda, the Taliban, or possibly any other terrorist organization, is an "enemy combatant" who can be detained in U.S. military custody until hostilities end, pursuant to the international law of war.[73][74][75]
The application of the Geneva Conventions in the Russo-Ukrainian War (2014–present) has been troublesome[vague] because some of the personnel who engaged in combat against the Ukrainians were not identified by insignia, although they did wear military-style fatigues.[76] The types of comportment qualified as acts of perfidy under jus in bello doctrine are listed in Articles 37 through 39 of the Geneva Convention; the prohibition of fake insignia is listed at Article 39.2, but the law is silent on the complete absence of insignia. The status of POWs captured in this circumstance remains a question.
Educational institutions and organizations including Harvard University,[77][78] the International Committee of the Red Cross,[79] and the Rohr Jewish Learning Institute use the Geneva Convention as a primary text investigating torture and warfare.[80]
New challenges
Artificial intelligence and autonomous weapon systems, such as military robots and cyber-weapons, are creating challenges in the creation, interpretation and application of the laws of armed conflict. The complexity of these new challenges, as well as the speed in which they are developed, complicates the application of the Conventions, which have not been updated in a long time.[81][82] Adding to this challenge is the very slow speed of the procedure of developing new treaties to deal with new forms of warfare, and determining agreed-upon interpretations to existing ones, meaning that by the time a decision can be made, armed conflict may have already evolved in a way that makes the changes obsolete.
In a speech given at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in 13 March 2019, International Committee of the Red Cross President Peter Maurer argued that the "collective challenge [for the ICRC] today is to find ways to ensure greater respect within the changing dynamics of conflict." This would involve "more tailor-made rules to protect civilians from conflict’s future front lines" regarding issues such as "armed actors and civilians intermingling and individuals changing from fighters at night to civilians by day; different forms of violence blending together, on increasingly fuzzy battlefields," as well as "fierce public defence" of any new suggested rules.[83]
Tilman Rodenhäuser and Mauro Vignati, advisors on legal issues and digital technology at the ICRC, have since proposed rules of engagement for civilian hackers in 2023.[84] The rules seek to mitigate or prevent any cyber attacks on civilian objects, infrastructure, and essential services, while encouraging states to implement "national laws that regulate civilian hacking."
See also
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Targeted killing
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Further reading
Matthew Evangelista and Nina Tannenwald (eds.). 2017. Do the Geneva Conventions Matter? Oxford University Press.
Giovanni Mantilla, "Conforming Instrumentalists: Why the USA and the United Kingdom Joined the 1949 Geneva Conventions," European Journal of International Law, Volume 28, Issue 2, May 2017, Pages 483–511.
Helen Kinsella, "The image before the weapon : a critical history of the distinction between combatant and civilian" Cornell University Press.
Boyd van Dijk (2022). Preparing for War: The Making of the Geneva Conventions. Oxford University Press.
External links
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Degan AliJan EgelandChristos ChristouWinnie ByanyimaMartin GriffithsJemilah MahmoodHugo SlimPeter MaurerJames OrbinskiRachel Kiddell-MonroeMacKenzie ScottMelinda French GatesJamshedji TataMichael BloombergWarren BuffettBill Gates
Donors and funding
CERFUSAIDJapanFCDO (UK)NorwayECHO (EU)CanadaTurkeyFranceOECDGates FoundationYield Giving
Major emergencies
Chinese Famine of 1870sGreat Indian Famine of 1870sEthiopian famine 1980s2004 tsunami2010 Haiti earthquake2011 East Africa droughtTyphoon HaiyanCentral African Republic Civil WarWestern African Ebola epidemicIraq WarSouth Sudanese Civil WarRohingya genocideSyrian civil warYemeni Civil War
Standards,
power, abuse
CHS AllianceSexual exploitation and abuseCore Humanitarian StandardSphere (organization) The Sphere HandbookThe State of the World's Cash 2020
Aid worker safety
Attacks on humanitarian workersAid Worker Security DatabaseWorld Humanitarian DayHealth Care In Danger CampaignKunduz hospital airstrikeAirstrikes on YemenDolo hospital airstrike
Related fields
Human rightsInternational developmentPeacekeepingNeocolonialism
Related articles
2015 European migrant crisisDetention centres in LibyaCrisis mappingHumanitarian Networks and Partnerships WeeksUnited Nations response to the COVID-19 pandemicAid effectiveness
World portal
Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata
International
GND
National
Japan
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