Wedding ring
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Wedding ring (disambiguation).
"Wedding band" redirects here. For the TV series, see Wedding Band.
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A wedding ring is commonly worn on the ring finger.
A pair of wedding rings
A wedding ring or wedding band is a finger ring that indicates that its wearer is married.[1] It is usually forged from metal, traditionally gold or another precious metal. Rings were used in ancient Rome during marriage.[2]
In western culture, a wedding ring is typically worn on the base of the left ring finger. The ring finger is widely said to be associated with the traditional belief known as vena amoris ("vein of love").
History
Marriage Ring with Scenes from the Life of Christ, c. 6th century, Walters Art Museum
The Western traditions of wedding rings can be traced to ancient Rome and Greece, and were first associated with the marital dowry and later with a promise of fidelity. The modern exchange of rings derived from the customs of Europe in the Middle Ages as part of Christendom.
Historical styles
Gimmel rings
Gimmel ring with the hoop opened, in the British Museum
During the 16th and 17th centuries, European husbands bestowed a gimmel ring upon their wives. Similar to the puzzle ring, the gimmel ring consisted of two interlocking bands. The bride and groom both wore one of these bands after their engagement, and the two bands were reunited during the wedding ceremony. Subsequently, the wife wore the combined ring.[3]
Poesy rings
The poesy ring was a style of ring that was popular during the Renaissance era. It was a band of sterling silver inscribed with a poem or "poesy".[3]
Other styles
Different cultures used many other historical styles of wedding ring. According to popular legend, in the Middle East, a puzzle ring, consisting of many bands that interlock to create a finished ring, would be given by the husband as a wedding ring, because if the wife removed it (presumably to commit adultery), the bands of the ring would fall apart, and she would be unable to reassemble it before its absence would be noticed.[4] However, a puzzle ring can be easily removed without the bands falling apart.
The fede ring, being a band consisting of two hands clasped in betrothal, is another historical custom of Europe that ostensibly dates from antiquity.[citation needed]
Limited gold content in the United Kingdom
In 1942 during the Second World War, British wartime restrictions on the manufacture of jewelry resulted in "utility" wedding rings that were limited to a maximum mass of two pennyweights, being slightly heavier than 3 grams (0.11 oz), and were forged of 9 carat gold rather than the traditional 22 carat.[5] The Regional Assayer Office hallmarked these rings, which guaranteed their gold content and compliance with the wartime regulations with a special utility mark adjacent to the mark for the year on the inside of the band; the hallmark resembled a capital "U" with the bottom curve absent or two parentheses enclosing a space, i. e., "()".
Double-ring ceremony
The double-ring ceremony describes the exchange of wedding rings by and for both spouses. In several European nations such as the Nordic countries, it is common to exchange plain engagement rings of the same form for both sexes, and typically, an additional, more precious, and bejeweled wedding ring is given to the bride. In the nuptials, the groom's ring becomes a wedding ring also, and can be bestowed anew by the bride as a part of the wedding ceremony. The engagement is commonly a matter of agreement between the two, and the wedding rings are chosen together. Both engagement and wedding rings are worn on the left hand in Sweden and Finland, the bride having both rings together. Occasionally, the groom receives a separate wedding ring. In Germany and Austria, both parties use engagement rings worn on the left hand.[6] At the nuptials, a wedding ring is placed on the right hand, as in several east European nations, including Bulgaria, Poland, and Russia. This can be a new ring for the bride or both, or reusing the engagement rings. Any engagement rings can then remain on the left hand or be transferred to the right hand. In Germany, it has been customary for both the bride and the groom to wear a wedding ring since at least the 1870s[7] and mentions of couples exchanging rings during the wedding ceremony in the Netherlands can be found at least as far back as 1815.[8] In both the United States and Canada, wedding rings were initially only worn by wives, but became customary for both spouses during the 20th century.[9] In Brazil, Mexico, and Spain both sexes also wear engagement rings, and the groom's ring often becomes a wedding ring in the nuptial exchange ceremony. In The Netherlands plain bands can be worn on either hand, left for Catholics and right for Protestants. When engaged, both bride and groom wear what will be the wedding band on the opposite hand and switch hands after the wedding.
Compositions and styles
In Western nations, wedding rings are often forged of gold, palladium, platinum, argentium silver, titanium, or tungsten. Common engravings on the inside of the ring include the name of one's spouse, the names of both spouses, the date of the wedding or a phrase of significance to the spouses.[citation needed] In many nations the engagement rings are plain while the bride's wedding ring commonly is bejeweled.
Some customs include the wedding ring as the final of a series of gifts, which also may include the engagement ring, traditionally given as a betrothal present. This custom was practiced in ancient Rome.[10]
Cultural practices
Wedding ceremony customs
A groom placing a wedding ring on the finger of his bride during a wedding ceremony
In several traditions, the best man or maid of honor has the duty of keeping track of a couple's wedding rings and to produce them at the symbolic moment of the giving and receiving of the rings during the traditional marriage ceremony. In more elaborate weddings, a ring bearer (who is often part of the family of the bride or groom) may assist in the ceremonial parading of the rings into the ceremony, sometimes on a special cushion.
In Western Christianity, engagement rings are exchanged during the betrothal rite, while wedding rings are given during the celebration of holy matrimony itself.[11] Among Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Lutheran and Eastern Catholic Christians, the exchange of rings is not technically part of the wedding service, but rather are exchanged at the betrothal. It is always a two-ring set given to her by the priest or by the best man.[10] Unlike most other Orthodox Churches, the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church of Greece has recently stopped performing betrothal blessings separately, and now a betrothal ceremony is the initial part of the wedding service. In Greece, the ceremony of betrothal may be performed immediately before the wedding (or "crowning" as it is more properly called), and the actual symbolic act of marriage is not the exchange of rings, but the crowning.
Historically, the wedding ring was connected to the exchange of valuables at the moment of the wedding rather than a symbol of eternal love and devotion, a sign of "earnest money". According to the 1549 edition of the Book of Common Prayer: after the words "with this ring I thee wed" follow the words "This gold and silver I give thee", at which point the groom was supposed to hand a leather purse filled with gold and silver coins to the bride.[12] It is a relic of the times when marriage was a contract between families, not individual lovers. Both families were then eager to ensure the economic safety of the young couple. Sometimes it went as far as being a conditional exchange as this old (and today outdated) German formula shows: "I give you this ring as a sign of the marriage which has been promised between us, provided your father gives with you a marriage portion of 1000 Reichsthalers" (approximately 20 kg (44 lb) of silver).[12]
Post-wedding customs
A gold banded engagement-wedding-anniversary ring combination welded together
Byzantine wedding ring, depicting Christ uniting the bride and groom, 7th century, nielloed gold (Musée du Louvre)
After marriage, the wedding ring is worn on the hand on which it had been placed during the ceremony. By wearing rings on their fourth fingers, married spouses symbolically declare their life-long love for and fidelity to each other. This symbol has public utility and is presently expected as a matter of tradition and etiquette, so much so that its absence is often interpreted as meaning that the person is single. Many spouses wear their wedding rings day and night. It is not uncommon for some spouses, especially those who have occupations that make the wearing of rings dangerous, such as actors, police and electrical workers, to not wear the ring at all, or to wear it on a chain around their neck. Since the 19th century in the West, some have considered it unlucky to remove a wedding ring once it has been placed on the finger in church.[13]
Some cultures exchange additional rings. In some parts of India, Hindu women may wear a toe ring or bichiya instead of a finger ring, but the bichiya is increasingly worn in addition to a finger ring. In eastern India, primarily in West Bengal, women wear an iron bangle, which may be gold- or silver-plated, called a loha. In Romania, spouses celebrate their silver wedding anniversary, i.e. twenty-fifth anniversary, by exchanging silver rings, which are worn on the fourth finger of the left hand along with their original, and usually gold, wedding rings.[14]
Wedding ceremonies that use rings
Christian
Anglican (Book of Common Prayer): "With this ring I thee wed, with my body I thee worship, and with all my worldly goods I thee endow: in the Name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. Amen."[15]
Eastern Orthodoxy: In the Eastern Orthodox Service of Betrothal, the priest makes the Sign of the Cross with rings over the bride's head while declaring three times "The servant of God (Groom) is betrothed to the handmaid of God (Bride), in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen". Next, it is declared three times again over the bride's head with the names reversed, after which the rings are exchanged three times, either by the priest or best man. The priest asks God "to bless this putting on of rings with a heavenly blessing and that an Angel of the Lord will go before these Your servants, all the days of their life."[16] In the Eastern Orthodox Church, wedding rings are traditionally worn on the right hand.
Lutheran: "I give you this ring as a sign of my love and faithfulness."[17]
Roman Catholic Church: "[Name], receive this ring as a sign of my love and fidelity. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit."[18] Because the equality of the spouses is emphasized in the Roman Catholic Sacrament of Marriage, generally the bride and groom each give to the other a wedding ring and recite the above formula in turn.
Mixed usage and non-use in other Christian Churches
While most Christian Churches (such as the Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican) have the exchange of rings within their wedding liturgies, some Christian denominations eschew the use of wedding rings.
The wearing of plain dress has historically been practiced by many Methodist Churches, in keeping with the teaching of John Wesley, who stated that people should not be "adorned with gold, or pearls, or costly apparel" (this clause is contained in The General Rules of the Methodist Church).[19][20] The first Methodist liturgical text, The Sunday Service of the Methodists, omitted the ring ceremony.[21] As such, members of some Methodist Churches, such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, do not wear wedding rings.[22][23] However, other Methodist Churches contain the exchange of wedding rings within their services for Holy Matrimony. In the wedding liturgy for the Free Methodist Church, for example, the groom and bride say the following when exchanging rings: "This ring I give you in token and pledge of our constant faith and steadfast love".[24] "A Service of Christian Marriage, Rite I" contained in The United Methodist Book of Worship states that the exchange of rings is optional but when it is done, they are blessed and pronounced as "the outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace, signifying to us the union between Jesus Christ and His Church".[25] Following this, the bride and groom state the following as they exchange rings: "[Name], I give you this ring as a sign of my vow, and with all that I am, and all that I have, I honor you; in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit."[25]
Some conservative Mennonite groups do not wear jewelry, including wedding rings, as part of their practice of plain dress.[26] The Amish do not wear wedding rings but the men are clean shaven before marriage and grow a full beard after marriage.
Among Quaker Christians, especially Conservative Friends and Holiness Friends, the wedding ring is traditionally not worn as a part of their testimony of simplicity.[27] Among Quaker groups that do wear wedding rings, the following wording is used by the bride and groom as they are exchanged: "With this ring, I thee wed."[28] The Friends General Conference, for example, teaches that "Although wedding rings are not necessary in a Quaker wedding, the couple may exchange them if they wish. This is often done after they speak their vows."[29]
Traditionally, adherents of the Seventh-day Adventist Church do not wear wedding rings.[30] The usage of wedding rings among Seventh-day Adventists, however, has increased.[31]
Jewish
Judaism: "You are consecrated to me with this ring according to the law of Moses and Israel." In Orthodox Judaism, only the groom declares this in Hebrew; but in Reform Judaism, both the bride and groom declare it.[32] Many Orthodox Jewish men do not wear wedding rings.[citation needed]
See also
Wedding ring
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Data from Wikidata
Claddagh ring
Courtship
Engagement ring
Eternity ring
Use of a wedding ring as a symbol: La bottega dell'orefice, a 1989 film based on The Jeweler's Shop, a play written by Karol Józef Wojtyła
Pre-engagement ring
Trilogy ring
Visual markers of marital status
The marriage symbol ⚭ depicts two engaged rings
References
"Wedding Ring". Harper Collins Dictionary (dictionary.com). Harper Collins & Son. 2016. Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2016.
Withey, Alison (March 2015). "Roman Wedding Rings". www.jewelpedia.net. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
Hort, G.M. (1919). "Some Tradition About Rings". The Irish Monthly. 47: 650, 654.
The Ohio Review. Ohio University. 1977. p. 31.
Church, Rachel (2014). Rings. V&A Publishing. p. 102. ISBN 9781851777853.
Hahnefeld, Bjoern (15 March 2023). "Engagement ring and wedding ring – which hand?". Goldene Zeiten Juweliere. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2023.
Chambers, W & R (1872). "The Ring of Rings". Chamber's Journal of Popular Literature, Science and Arts: 352.
Gartman, Hendrik (1815). Eugenia, de zegepraal over de liefde. Hendrik Gartman. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 31 October 2021.
Howard, Vicki (2003). "A 'Real Man's Ring': Gender and the Invention of Tradition". Journal of Social History. 36 (4): 837–856. doi:10.1353/jsh.2003.0098. S2CID 144304412.
"Ring". Encyclopædia Britannica. The Romans are also thought to have originated the custom of betrothal rings, or engagement rings, symbolizing a promise of marriage to a member of the opposite sex.
"Rites Relating to Marriage: A Statement and Resources from The International Anglican Liturgical Consultation" (PDF). The International Anglican Liturgical Consultation. 2011. pp. 4, 14–15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
Kunz, George Frederick (1917). Rings for the Finger. J.B. Lippincott Co. Archived from the original on 10 September 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2007.
Monger, George (2004). Marriage Customs of the World: From Henna to Honeymoons. ABC-CLIO. p. 235. ISBN 9781576079874.
Stritof, Sheri. "History of Wedding Anniversary Gift Lists". About.com: People & Relationships – Marriage. About.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 17 September 2013.
The Form of Solemnization of Matrimony, Book of Common Prayer, 1662.
"The Sacrament of Marriage According to the Rites of The Greek Orthodox Church". Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
"Marriage" (PDF). Lutheran Book of Worship. Augsburg Fortress. 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
"Wedding rings and marriage". 11 January 2022.
Bunch, Taylor G. (1997). Exodus and Advent Movements in Type and Antitype. TEACH Services, Inc. p. 77. ISBN 9781572581210.
"The General Rules of the Methodist Church". The United Methodist Church. Archived from the original on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
Religion in Life. Abingdon Press. 1948. p. 519.
"I. The Church". Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection. Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection. p. 31.
"Discipline of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches" (PDF). 2014. pp. 33–34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
"2007 Book of Discipline" (PDF). Free Methodist Church. 2007. p. 226. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2016. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
"A Service of Christian Marriage I". The United Methodist Church. 1992. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
Wenger, John C. (3 October 2000). Glimpses of Mennonite History. Wipf & Stock Publishers. p. 113. ISBN 9781579104658.
Ranger, Kim L. (2016). "Seventh-day Quaker: A Spiritual Memoir". Grand Valley State University. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
Cartier, Marie (11 September 2014). Baby, You are My Religion: Women, Gay Bars, and Theology Before Stonewall. Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 9781317544715.
"Faith and Practice of Northern Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends Chapter on Marriage Approved, May 2008 and Guidelines for Marriage Under the Care of Madison Monthly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends" (PDF). Friends General Conference. 2014. p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
Review and Herald: Official Organ of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church. Seventh-day Adventist Church. 1967. p. 14. In the United States, Seventh-day Adventist ministers do not baptize a person wearing a wedding ring, nor do they officiate at a wedding in which the ring ceremony is part of the service.
Spectrum: Journal of the Association of Adventist Forums. The Association. 1969. p. 47. In 1918, Stemple White quoted John Wesley and the 1855 Methodist Discipline in an apparent protest against increasing acceptance of the wedding ring in Adventist circles.
Blane, Steven. "Jewish Wedding". JewishWeddingTraditions.org. Archived from the original on 7 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
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Objects
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Participants
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Media related to Wedding rings at Wikimedia Commons
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Wedding (disambiguation) and The Wedding (disambiguation).
"Nuptials" redirects here. For the essays, see Nuptials (essays).
Kashmiri Hindu wedding (India)
Muslim wedding (Tunisia)
Roman Catholic white wedding (Philippines)
Armenian wedding
Indian wedding ceremony
Couple at a pre-wedding ceremony in Thailand
Couple from a Belarus wedding
A wedding is a ceremony in which two people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethnicities, races, religions, denominations, countries, social classes, and sexual orientations. Most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of marriage vows by a couple; a presentation of a gift (e.g., an offering, rings, a symbolic item, flowers, money, or a dress); and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure or celebrant. Special wedding garments are often worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. Music, poetry, prayers, or readings from religious texts or literature are also commonly incorporated into the ceremony, as well as superstitious customs.
Relationships
(Outline)
Types
Activities
Endings
Emotions and feelings
Practices
Abuse
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Common elements across cultures
See also: Wedding customs by country
Many cultures have adopted the traditional Western custom of a white wedding, when a bride wears a white wedding dress and veil. Painting by Edmund Leighton (1853–1922).
Wedding party at Stockholm's Lillienhoff Palace in Sweden in 2017
Some cultures have adopted the traditional Western custom of the white wedding, in which a bride wears a white wedding dress and veil. This tradition was popularized through the marriage of Queen Victoria.[1] Some say Queen Victoria's choice of a white gown may have simply been a sign of extravagance, but may have also been influenced by the values she held which emphasized sexual purity.[2]
The use of a wedding ring has long been part of religious weddings in Indian sub-continent, Europe and America, but the origin of the tradition is unclear. One possibility is the Roman belief in the vena amoris, which was believed to be a blood vessel that ran from the fourth finger (ring finger) directly to the heart. Thus, when a couple wore rings on this finger, their hearts were connected. Historian Vicki Howard points out that the belief in the "ancient" quality of the practice is most likely a modern invention.[3] In the United States, a groom's wedding band has not appeared until the early 20th century,[4] while in Europe it has been part of the tradition since the ancient Romans, as witnessed by the jurist Gaius.
The exit from the wedding ceremony is also called the "send off" and often includes traditional practices; for instance, in Ethiopian weddings, newlyweds and the rest of the wedding party bow and kiss the elders' knees. In most of the Western world,[5] as well as in countries such as India[6] and Malaysia,[7] the send off often includes the practice of throwing rice (a symbol of prosperity and fertility)[6] or other seeds at the newlyweds. Despite popular belief, using uncooked rice for this purpose is not harmful to birds.[8] In several cultures, people toss shoes instead of rice.[9]
Wedding decorations at the Mahnala Stage (Mahnalan lava) in Hämeenkyrö, Pirkanmaa, Finland in July 2019
The wedding ceremony is often followed by a wedding reception or wedding breakfast, in which the rituals may include speeches from a groom, best man, father of a bride and possibly a bride,[10] the newlyweds' first dance as a couple, and the cutting of an elegant wedding cake. In recent years traditions have changed to include a father-daughter dance for a bride and her father, and sometimes also a mother-son dance for a groom and his mother.
Locations
In some countries there are restrictions on where a wedding may take place, for example before the Marriage Act 1994, marriages in England and Wales could only take place in authorized religious buildings or civil register offices, but the Act extended the options available to allow weddings in other "approved premises".[11] Cretney identified a wide range of venues which sought approval after the implementation of this legal change, including funeral homes, hotels, stately homes, baseball fields, football grounds, basketball courts, beaches, a cemetery's chapel, town halls, museums, performing arts centers, health clubs, urban parks and former warships. Related outdoor locations could also be approved for weddings after the Marriages and Civil Partnerships (Approved Premises) (Amendment) Regulations 2022 were adopted.[12]
Traditional wedding attire
Western dress code
Wedding dress (or bridal gown), a special dress worn by a bride.
Traditional Western wedding veil
Wedding veil, popularized by Queen Victoria, was a long-held custom in which the 'purity' and 'innocence' of the bride could thwart evil spirits.
Morning dress, western daytime formal dress
White tie ("evening dress" in the U.K; very formal evening attire)
Black tie or Evening Suit ("dinner jacket" in the U.K; often referred to as a tuxedo in the U.S. and Canada; traditionally appropriate only for use after 6:00 p.m.)
Stroller
Lounge suit
Non-traditional "tuxedo" variants (colored jackets/ties, "wedding suits")
Ao dai, traditional garments of Vietnam
Barong tagalog, an embroidered, formal men's garment of the Philippines
Batik and Kebaya, a garment worn by the Javanese people of Indonesia and also by the Malay people of Malaysia
Dashiki, the traditional West African wedding attire
Dhoti, male garment in South India
Hanbok, the traditional garment of Korea
Kilt, male garment particular to Scottish culture[13][14][15]
Kittel, a white robe worn by the groom at an Orthodox Jewish wedding. A kittel is worn only under a chuppah and is removed before the reception.
Qun Gua or Kua (裙褂 pinyin qún guà, Cantonese kwàhn kwáa), Chinese traditional formal wear. This can be in the form of a qipao or hanfu.
Ribbon shirt, often worn by Native American men on auspicious occasions, such as weddings. Another common custom is to wrap the bride and groom in a blanket.
Sampot, traditional dress in Cambodia
Sari/Lehenga, Indian popular and traditional dress in India
Sherwani, a long coat-like garment worn in South Asia
Shiromuku Kimono, a traditional wedding garment in Japan
Shweshwe, a female dress worn by Basotho women during special ceremonies. It has recently been adopted in men's attire as well.
Tiara, or wedding crown, worn by Syrian and Greek couples (which are called "τα στέφανα", which literally means "wreaths") and Scandinavian brides
Topor, a type of conical headgear traditionally worn by grooms as part of a Bengali Hindu wedding ceremony
Different wedding clothing around the world
Khmer (Cambodian) wedding in traditional outfits
Khmer (Cambodian) wedding in traditional outfits
A bride and a bridegroom in Nepal
A bride and a bridegroom in Nepal
Neopagan handfasting ceremony
Neopagan handfasting ceremony
A Muslim couple in India at their wedding ceremony, also called a nikah
A Muslim couple in India at their wedding ceremony, also called a nikah
Fire rituals at a Hindu wedding in India
Fire rituals at a Hindu wedding in India
Crowning during a Nasrani wedding in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
Crowning during a Nasrani wedding in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church
Japanese bride and bridegroom
Japanese bride and bridegroom
Traditional Armenian wedding dress
Traditional Armenian wedding dress
A Parsi wedding
A Parsi wedding
Assyrian bride and groom during a wedding celebration
Assyrian bride and groom during a wedding celebration
Chinese traditional wedding attire, Zhou dynasty style
Chinese traditional wedding attire, Zhou dynasty style
Wedding at Burning Man
Wedding at Burning Man
1935 wedding in Barcelona, Spain
1935 wedding in Barcelona, Spain
Minangkabau marriage in Indonesia
Minangkabau marriage in Indonesia
Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine
Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine
Groom in the traditional dress of Bangladesh in a wedding ceremony
Groom in the traditional dress of Bangladesh in a wedding ceremony
Sri Lankan Kandyan bride and groom
Sri Lankan Kandyan bride and groom
Armenian wedding at Khor Virap
Armenian wedding at Khor Virap
Traditional wedding ceremony in Jomala, Åland
Traditional wedding ceremony in Jomala, Åland
Hindu marriage conducted in the Adivasi tribes, India
Hindu marriage conducted in the Adivasi tribes, India
Attendees at a rural marriage ceremony in Mymensingh, Bangladesh
Attendees at a rural marriage ceremony in Mymensingh, Bangladesh
Wedding in Turkey
Wedding in Turkey
Wedding music
Main article: Wedding music
Bridal march
Duration: 2 minutes and 20 seconds.2:20
The Bridal Chorus from Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Western weddings
Music played at Western weddings includes a processional song (e.g., the Wedding March) for walking down the aisle, either before or after the marriage service. An example of such use is reported in the 1878 wedding of Nora Robinson and Alexander Kirkman Finlay.[16]
The "Bridal Chorus" from Lohengrin by Richard Wagner, commonly known as "Here Comes the Bride", is often used as the processional. Wagner is said to have been anti-Semitic,[17] and as a result, the Bridal Chorus is normally not used at Jewish weddings.[18] UK law forbids music with any religious connotations to be used in a civil ceremony.[19]
Johann Pachelbel's Canon in D is an alternative processional.[20] Other alternatives include various contemporary melodies, such as Bob Marley's One Love, which is sometimes performed by a steel drum band.[4] The music used in modern weddings is usually left completely up to the bride and groom, and it is becoming increasingly popular for couples to add their own twist to the song they walk down the aisle to. Many brides and grooms use songs that hold special value for them.
In the United States, approximately 2 million people get married each year, and close to 70 million people attend a wedding and spend more than $100 on a gift.[21]
In the United Kingdom, according to a survey, the average minimum amount spent on a wedding gift[22] is £24.70, and the average maximum amount spent is £111.46. Eighty-five percent of people said that they were more likely to spend more money on a person if they had a good relationship with him or her.
Customs associated with various religions and cultures
Christian customs
Main article: Christian views on marriage
Further information: Marriage § Christianity
A couple exchange vows at the altar during a ceremony in a Catholic Church.
Most Christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage, which is seen as a sacred institution in some sense, although terminology and associated theological meanings vary widely from one denomination to another (e.g., "holy matrimony", "sacrament of marriage", "holy ordinance of marriage", or "holy union").
A celebration of Holy Matrimony typically includes mutual vows or solemn promises of lifelong love and fidelity by the couple, and may include some sort of pledge by the community to support the couple's relationship. A church wedding is a ceremony held in a church and presided over by a Christian pastor. Traditionally, Christian weddings occur in a church, as Christian marriage ideally begins where one started his or her faith journey. (Christians receive the sacrament of baptism in church in the presence of their congregation.)[23] Catholic Christian weddings must "take place in a church building", as holy matrimony is a sacrament; sacraments normatively occur in the presence of Christ in the house of God, and "members of the faith community [should be] present to witness the event and provide support and encouragement for those celebrating the sacrament."[23] Bishops never grant permission "to those requesting to be married in a garden, on the beach, or some other place outside of the church" and a dispensation is only granted "in extraordinary circumstances (for example, if a bride or groom is ill or disabled and unable to come to the church)."[23] Marriage in the church, for Christians, is seen as contributing to the fruit of the newlywed couple regularly attending church each Lord's Day and raising children in the faith.[23]
Wedding ceremonies typically contain prayers and readings from the Holy Bible and reflect the church's teachings about the spiritual significance of marriage, as well as its purpose and obligations. The wedding service often includes the reception of Holy Communion, especially in the context of Mass (as with Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Anglicanism).[24] In some traditional weddings of Western Christianity (especially Catholicism, Lutheranism and Anglicanism), a "care cloth" or "nuptial veil" (velatio nuptialis) "signifying a marriage yoke joining the bride and groom together" may be held over the kneeling couple during the nuptial blessing given by the priest.[25][26][27][28][29]
Pre-marital counseling may be recommended or required for an engaged couple.[30] In some Christian countries or denominations, a betrothal rite, as well as the reading of banns of marriage may also be required before the wedding date.[31]
Emperor Pedro I of Brazil and Amélie of Leuchtenberg married in a Roman Catholic ceremony in the Imperial Chapel in Rio de Janeiro on October 16, 1829.
In the Roman Catholic Church, Holy Matrimony is considered to be one of the seven sacraments, in this case, one that the spouses bestow upon each other in front of a priest and members of the community as witnesses. As with all sacraments, it is seen as having been instituted by Jesus himself (see Gospel of Matthew 19:1–2, Catechism of the Catholic Church §1614–1615). The Second Vatican Council's Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy noted that there can be a place for appropriate "customs and ceremonies" to be incorporated into a Catholic marriage service.[32]
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, it is one of the Mysteries and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom. The Christian wedding ceremony of Saint Thomas Christians, an ethnoreligious group of Christians in India, incorporates elements from local Indian traditions. Protestant weddings may be elaborate (as with Lutheranism and Anglicanism) or simple (as with Baptists). For example, in the United Methodist Church, the Service of Christian Marriage (Rite I) includes the elements found in a typical Sunday service, such as hymns, prayers, and readings from the Bible, as well as other elements unique to a wedding, including taking marriage vows and an optional exchange of wedding rings, as well as a special benediction for the couple.[33] Holy Communion may be part of the wedding service in liturgical Protestant churches (e.g., Lutheran, Anglican, or Methodist), but is rarely, if ever, found in weddings of other low-church Protestant denominations (e.g., Baptists).
A Quaker wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other meeting for worship, and therefore often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends.[34]
In some Western countries, a separate and secular civil wedding ceremony is required for recognition by the state, while in other Western countries, couples must merely obtain a marriage license from a local government authority and can be married by Christian or other clergy authorized by law to do so.
Since the beginning of the 21st century, same-sex couples have been allowed to marry civilly in many countries, and some Christian churches in those countries allow religious marriages of same-sex couples, though some forbid it. See the article Same-sex marriage.
Hindu customs
Main article: Hindu wedding
Bridegroom arrives on horseback at a Rajput wedding.
Hindu ceremonies are usually conducted totally or at least partially in Sanskrit, the language of the Hindu scriptures. The wedding celebrations may last for several days and they can be extremely diverse, depending upon the region, denomination, and community. Mehendi ceremony is a traditional ritual in Hindu weddings, where Henna application takes place on the bride's hands and legs, before the wedding. On the wedding day, the bride and the bridegroom garland each other in front of the guests. Most guests witness only this short ceremony and then socialize, have food, and leave. The religious part (if applicable) comes hours later, witnessed by close friends and relatives. In cases where a religious ceremony is present, a Brahmin (Hindu priest) arranges a sacred yajna (fire-sacrifice), and the sacred fire (Agni) is considered the prime witness (sākshī) of the marriage. He chants mantras from the Vedas and subsidiary texts while the couple is seated before the fire. The most important step is saptapadi or saat phere, wherein the bride and the groom, hand-in-hand, encircle the sacred fire seven times, each circle representing a matrimonial vow. Then the groom marks the bride's hair parting with vermilion (sindoor) and puts a gold necklace (mangalsutra) around her neck. Or a yellow thread applied with turmeric is knotted around the bride's neck 3 times at marriage. The first knot represents her obedience and respect to her husband, the second one to his parents and the third represents her respect to God. Several other rituals may precede or follow these afore-mentioned rites. Then the bride formally departs from her blood-relatives to join the groom's family.
Jewish customs
Jewish wedding
Main articles: Jewish wedding and Jewish views on marriage
A traditional Jewish wedding usually follows this format:[35][36][37][38][39]
Before the ceremony, the couple formalize a written ketubah (marriage contract), specifying the obligations of husband to the wife and contingencies in case of divorce. The ketubah is signed by two witnesses and later read under the chuppah (wedding canopy).
The couple is married under the chuppah signifying their new home together. The chuppah can be made from a piece of cloth or other material attached to four poles, or a giant tallit (prayer shawl) held over the couple by four family members or friends.
The wedding couple is accompanied by both sets of parents and they join the wedding couple under the chuppah.
In some Orthodox Jewish weddings, the bride is accompanied to the chuppah by both mothers, and the groom is accompanied to the chuppah by both fathers.
Seven blessings are recited, blessing the bride and groom and their new home.
The couple sip a glass of wine from a Kiddush cup.
The groom will smash a wine glass with his right foot, ostensibly in remembrance of the destruction of the Second Temple. The shattered cup also symbolizes the 'broken' world, and the lifelong process of finding the pieces and putting them back together.
In Reform Jewish weddings, the bride and groom can smash the wine glass together.
At some weddings, the couple may declare that each is sanctified to the other, repeat other vows and exchange rings.
In Orthodox Jewish weddings, the bride does not speak under the chuppah and only she receives a ring. The groom recites "Harei at mekudeshet li k'dat Moshe V'Yisrael"- "behold you are [thus] sanctified to me by the law of Moses and Israel" as he places the ring on the bride's right index finger. The bride's silence and acceptance of the ring signify her agreement to the marriage. This part of the ceremony is called kiddushin. The groom's giving an object of value to the bride is necessary for the wedding to be valid.
In more egalitarian weddings, the bride responds verbally, often giving the groom a ring in return. A common response is "ani l'dodi, v'dodi li" (I am my beloved's, my beloved is mine)
In some Orthodox weddings, the groom then says:
"If I forget you, O Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill.
May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth.
If I do not remember you,
if I do not consider Jerusalem in my highest joy."
The ceremony ends with the groom breaking a glass underfoot.
The couple spend their first moments as husband and wife in seclusion (apart from the wedding guests, and with no other person present). This cheder yichud – "the room of seclusion (or 'oneness')" halachically strengthens the marriage bond since Orthodox Jews are forbidden to be secluded with an unrelated person of the opposite sex.
The ceremony is followed by a seudat mitzvah, the wedding meal, as well as music and dancing.
At the conclusion of the wedding meal, Birkat Hamazon (Grace After Meals) is recited, as well as the seven wedding blessings.
In more observant communities, the couple will celebrate for seven more days, called the Sheva Brachot (seven blessings) during which the seven wedding blessings are recited at every large gathering during this time.
Islamic customs
Main articles: Marriage in Islam and Islamic marital practices
Henna on the hands of a bride in Tunisia
A wedding is typically a happy time for families to celebrate. In the Middle East, there are colorful, cultural variations from place to place.[40]
Two male witnesses who are the members of the family in most cases are required for Nikah. According to the Quran, in a married Muslim couple, both husband and wife act as each other's protector and comforter and therefore only meant "for each other".
All Muslim marriages have to be declared publicly and are never to be undertaken in secret. For many Muslims, it is the ceremony that counts as the actual wedding alongside a confirmation of that wedding in a registry office according to fiqh. In Islam a wedding is also viewed as a legal contract particularly in Islamic jurisprudences. However, most Muslim cultures separate both the institutions of the mosque and marriage; no religious official is necessary, but very often an Imam presides and performs the ceremony, he may deliver a short sermon.[41] Celebrations may differ from country to country depending on their culture but the main ceremony is followed by a Walima (the marriage banquet).
In Islam, polygyny is allowed with certain religious restrictions. Despite that, an overwhelming majority of Muslims traditionally practice monogamy.
It is forbidden in Islam for parents or anyone else: to force, coerce, or trick either man or woman into a marriage that is contrary to the individual will of any one of the couples. It is also necessary for all marriages to commence with the best of intentions.
Chinese customs
In traditional Chinese wedding ceremonies, the bride arrives in a jiao
At traditional Chinese weddings, the tea ceremony is the equivalent of an exchange of vows at a Western wedding ceremony. This ritual is still practiced widely among rural Chinese; however, young people in larger cities, as well as in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore, tend to practice a combination of Western style of marriage together with the tea ceremony.
When the bride leaves her home with the groom to his house, a "Good Luck Woman" will hold a red umbrella over her head, meaning, "Raise the bark, spread the leaves." This "Good Luck Woman" should be someone who is blessed with a good marriage, healthy children, and husband and living parents. Other relatives will scatter rice, red beans, and green beans in front of her. The red umbrella protects the bride from evil spirits, and the rice and beans are to attract the attention of the gold chicken.[42]
The newlyweds kneel in front of parents presenting tea. A Good Luck Woman making the tea says auspicious phrases to bless the newlyweds and their families. The newlyweds also present tea to each other, raising the tea cups high to show respect before presenting the tea to each other.
The attendants receiving the tea usually give the bride gifts such as jewelry or a red envelope.
The tea ceremony is an official ritual to introduce the newlyweds to each other's family, and a way for newlyweds to show respect and appreciation to their parents. The newlyweds kneel in front of their parents, serving tea to both sides of parents, as well as elder close relatives. Parents give their words of blessing and gifts to the newlyweds.
Welsh customs
Prior to the 19th century, first recorded in the 13th century in the Book of Aneirin,[43] a custom known as a 'Neithior' or 'Neithor' was observed by the Welsh, it consisted of a great feast being held the following Sunday after the Wedding at the bride's parental home, the guests would pay for the meals and entertainments so that the new couple could afford a new home.[44]
Humanist weddings
While many wedding traditions and rituals have origins in religions and are still performed by religious leaders, some marriage traditions are cultural and predate the prevalent religions in those regions. Non-religious people will often want to have a wedding that is secular (not religious) in content. In order to meet this demand, secular ceremonies carried out by humanist celebrants first developed in the 19th century. Humanists UK members pioneered humanist weddings in the 1890s, and its weddings continue to be popular with couples across England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. In Scotland, Humanist Society Scotland (HSS) has carried out secular ceremonies in the country since the 1980s. These have been legally recognized since 2005,[45] and became more numerous than church weddings in 2018.[46][47] Humanist weddings vary in their content, but tend to include a combination of elements from traditional and modern weddings with an emphasis on the couple's values and their unique love story.[48]
Humanist wedding ceremonies are carried out in a variety of countries like the U.S., Canada and recently Brazil, having legal status in only a few of these countries. Humanist celebrants are able to perform valid civil marriages and civil partnerships in the Republic of Ireland. Secular weddings are becoming more popular in Ireland due to a declining influence of the Catholic Church.[49] Since 2015, Irish humanists have conducted more weddings than the Church of Ireland.[50]
A 2004 California wedding between a Filipina bride and a Nigerian groom.
Types
There are many ways to categorize weddings, such as by the size or cultural traditions. A wedding may fall into several categories, such as a destination microwedding, or a civil elopement.
White wedding
White wedding in Ukraine
Main article: White wedding
A white wedding is a term for a traditional formal or semi-formal Western wedding. This term refers to the color of the wedding dress, which became popular after Queen Victoria wore a pure white gown when she married Prince Albert and many were quick to copy her choice.[1] At the time, the color white symbolized both extravagance and virginal purity to many and had become the color for use by young women being formally presented to the royal court.[2] White weddings often take place in a place of worship, such as a church, synagogue, mosque, or other place of worship.
Civil wedding
A civil wedding is a ceremony presided over by a local civil authority, such as an elected or appointed judge, Justice of the peace or the mayor of a locality. Civil wedding ceremonies may use references to God or a deity (except in U.K law where readings and music are also restricted), but generally no references to a particular religion or denomination.
Civil weddings allow partners of different faiths to marry without one partner converting to the other partner's religion.
They can be either elaborate or simple. Many civil wedding ceremonies take place in local town or city halls, courthouses in judges' chambers, in attorneys offices, in the mayor's office, or in the governor's office.
The relevance of civil weddings varies greatly from country to country. Some countries do not provide any form of civil wedding at all (Israel and many Islamic countries), while in others it is the only legally recognized form of marriage (most countries in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Australia and The Pacific). In this case civil weddings are typically either a mandatory prerequisite for any religious ceremony or religious weddings have no legal significance at all. See Civil marriage.[51]
Destination wedding
"Destination wedding" redirects here. For the film, see Destination Wedding.
Not to be confused with an elopement, a destination wedding is one in which a wedding is hosted, often in a vacation-like setting, at a location to which most of the invited guests must travel and often stay for several days. This type of ceremony could be held on a beach, in a metropolitan resort, a hotel, a banquet hall, a mountain, or at the home of a geographically distant friend or relative. During the recession of 2009, destination weddings continued to see growth compared to traditional weddings, as the typically smaller size results in lower costs.[52] Some of the most popular European destinations for weddings include Lake Como in Italy, Santorini in Greece, Paris in France, and Tuscany in Italy.[53]
Destination weddings are prohibited in certain denominations of Christianity, such as the Catholic Church, which teach that Christian marriages should take place in the presence of God at church, where Christians began their journey of faith in the sacrament of baptism.[23]
In the United Kingdom, a variation known as home-country destination weddings refers to weddings celebrated within the couple’s country of residence that are planned to replicate the atmosphere, aesthetics, and symbolic qualities of international destination weddings. These events typically involve travel within the country to culturally or scenically significant locations and are structured to provide an immersive, multi-day experience without crossing national borders.[54]
Double wedding
A double wedding is a double ceremony where two affianced couples rendezvous for two simultaneous or consecutive weddings. Typically, a fiancé with a sibling or cousin who is also engaged, or four close friends in which both couples within the friendship are engaged might plan a double wedding where both couples legally marry.
Elopement
Elopement is the act of getting married, often unexpectedly, without inviting guests to the wedding. In some cases, a small group of family or friends may be present, while in others, the engaged couple may marry without the consent or knowledge of parents or others. While the couple may or may not be widely known to be engaged prior to the elopement, the wedding itself is generally a surprise to those who are later informed of its occurrence.
Handfasting
A handfasting is an old pagan custom, dating back to the time of the ancient Celts. A handfasting was originally more like an engagement period, where two people would declare a binding union between themselves for a year and a day. The original handfasting was a trial marriage.[55]
Highland or Scottish wedding
The groom and one other in the wedding party wear a kilt with Argyll jacket and long tie.
A Highland or Scottish wedding has the groom, with some or all of the groom's men wear a kilt. The bride may wear a sash or other tartan clothing. The Scottish basket sword is used for any Saber Arch.
Mass wedding
A collective or mass wedding is a single ceremony where numerous couples are married simultaneously.
Microwedding
A microwedding or minimony is defined by the small number of friends and family members present. The number of guests is usually understood to be no more than 10 or 15 people including family members,[56] although some sources will use this label for a small wedding with up to 50 guests.[57] Compared to an elopement or a civil wedding with no guests, a microwedding is planned and announced in advance and may incorporate whatever traditions and activities the family wants to maintain, such as a wedding cake,[58] photographs, or religious ceremonies.[56] Although the cost per guest may be higher, the overall cost of a microwedding is usually significantly less than a large wedding.[56][59]
Microweddings gained attention during the COVID-19 pandemic as a way to have a wedding event in compliance with public health restrictions.[60][61] After pandemic restrictions were lifted, they remained popular, with couples particularly appreciating their significantly lower costs.[62]
Military wedding
A military wedding is a ceremony conducted in a military chapel and may involve a saber arch. In most military weddings one or both of the people getting married will wear a military dress uniform in lieu of civilian formal wear. Some retired military personnel who marry after their service has ended may opt for a military wedding.
Peasant wedding
A peasant wedding is a Dutch carnival custom.
Not everywhere in Limburg and Brabant is a boerenbruiloft (peasant's wedding) part of the carnival. Especially in the northern and central part of Limburg and eastern part of North Brabant is the boerenbruiloft very often held during the carnival and is an important part of the carnival culture. Each carnival association has its own tradition concerning choosing the spouse for a wedding. Often the bride and groom are chosen by the council of eleven or by the couple that was married the year before. It is not necessary that the newlyweds are a couple in real life. It is also not necessary that the bride and groom are single. Both the bride and groom, however, should be in love during the carnival and they need to transfer their love to all the people who celebrate their wedding along with them. The highlight of the festival of the peasant wedding is the wedding and feast of the onecht (not-marriage) of the bride and groom. There are many aspects that can be found in a real-life marriage. First the engagement will be announced just as if it would be an official marriage. And both the families should learn to know each other very well in organizing the party and the ceremony, like a normal wedding. The two families prepare a piece of entertainment for the wedding.[63] And just like a real wedding, a reception and a feast is organized where guests are asked to wear appropriate clothing. The bride and groom will often dress in wedding clothing from before 1940. The bride, for example, will often wear a poffer, which is a traditional Brabantian headdress.[64]
Same-sex wedding
Main article: Same-sex marriage
A same-sex wedding is a wedding between two people of the same sex.
Sequel wedding
A sequel wedding is a large-scale wedding ceremony occurring some time after a couple's legal nuptials, which are typically much smaller. Sequel weddings are generally meant to celebrate a couple's union among many guests who were unable to attend the initial wedding or elopement.
Shotgun wedding
A shotgun wedding is a wedding in which the groom is reluctant to marry the bride but is strongly encouraged to do so to avoid family, social or legal repercussions. In many cases, the bride is pregnant before the wedding and the family of the bride, most commonly her father, insists that the groom marry the bride before the pregnancy becomes obvious.
Vow renewal wedding
A wedding vow renewal is a ceremony in which a married couple renews or reaffirms their wedding vows. Typically, this ceremony is held to commemorate a milestone wedding anniversary. It may also be held to recreate the marriage ceremony in the presence of family and friends, especially in the case of an earlier elopement.
Weekend wedding
A weekend wedding is a wedding in which couples and their guests celebrate over the course of an entire weekend. Special activities, such as spa treatments and golf tournaments may be scheduled into the wedding itinerary. Lodging usually is at the same facility as the wedding and couples often host a Sunday brunch for the weekend's finale.
Black wedding
A black wedding, also known as "shvartse khasene" in Yiddish, or a plague wedding, referred to as "mageyfe khasene" in Yiddish, is a Jewish tradition where a wedding takes place in times of crisis, particularly during epidemics. In this custom, the bride and groom, often impoverished orphans, beggars, or individuals with disabilities, are united in marriage as a means to fend off diseases.[65][66]
Wedding ceremony participants
Formal family picture of a royal wedding
Waiting for the bride. From left: priest, groom and ushers in New Zealand wearing Scottish kilts
A wedding party in 1918
Wedding ceremony participants also referred to as the wedding party, are the people that participate directly in the wedding ceremony itself.
Depending on the location, religion, and style of the wedding, this group may include only the individual people that are marrying, or it may include one or more brides, grooms (or bridegrooms), persons of honor, bridespersons, best persons, groomsmen, flower girls, pages, and ring bearers.
A "bride's party" consists of those chosen to participate from her family or friends, while a "groom's party" consists of those from his family or friends.
Bride: A woman about to be married.
Bridegroom or groom: A man about to be married.
Marriage officiant: The person who officiates at the wedding, validating the wedding from a legal and/or religious standpoint. This person may be a civil celebrant, judge, justice of the peace, or a member of the clergy. In Hindu marriages, the marriage officiant is called a pandit or Brahmin.[67]
Best Man, Woman, or Person: The chief assistant to a groom at a wedding, typically a sibling, cousin, or friend of special significance in his life. Often holds the wedding rings until their exchange.
Mothers of a Bride or Groom
Fathers of a Bride or Groom
Maid, Matron, Man, or Person of Honor: the title and position held by a bride's chief attendant, typically her closest friend or sibling.
Bridesmaids: the female attendants to a bride. Males in this role may be called honor attendants or sometimes bridesmen.
Groomsmen or Ushers: The attendants, usually male, to a bridegroom in a wedding ceremony. Female attendants, such as a sister of the groom, are typically called honor attendants or sometimes groomswomen or groomsmaids.
Pages: Young attendants may carry a bride's train. In a formal wedding, the ring bearer is a special page that carries the rings down the aisle. The coin bearer is a similar page that marches on the wedding aisle to bring the wedding coins.
Flower girls: In some traditions, one or more children carry bouquets or drop flower petals in front of a bride in the wedding procession.
Wedding industry
The global wedding industry was worth $300 billion as of 2016. The United States wedding industry alone was estimated to be worth $60 billion as of the same year. In the United States, the wedding industry employs over one million people throughout 600,000 businesses and grows 2% each year. The industry has undergone a transition due to the increased use of technology. Bridal websites, blogs,[68] and social media accounts have driven spending up and created new trends and traditions.[69]
As of 2013, the average cost of a wedding in the US was $29,858 ($18,900 in current dollars). Extravagant spending on weddings is associated with debt stress and short-lived marriages that end in divorce.[70] Couples who spent less than US$10,000 on all wedding-related expenses, who went on a honeymoon trip, and who had a relatively large number of guests in attendance, were the least likely to divorce.[70] (The cost of the honeymoon itself had no effect.[70]) Couples who start their marriage in debt are more likely to have fights early on their marriage which can lead to divorce.[71] The best way to avoid disagreement is to have open communication with families and plan based on means.[71] Even if the wedding goes well and the couple is happy to be married, the stress of putting on the event can lead to post-wedding anxiety or depression.[72]
A wedding tax is the concept of goods or services being purchased for a wedding being more expensive when compared to other events such as a family reunion or anniversary.[73] It is also known as a wedding markup.[74] In 2016, an article published by Consumer Reports identified that 28% of secret shoppers who queried vendors would be charged a wedding markup.[75] Vendors may charge more because they perceive wedding clients as more demanding or willing to spend more.[74] Weddings can also be more time- and labour-intensive events for the vendor (e.g., lengthy planning discussions or ongoing touch-ups for makeup), require additional liability insurance or different materials (e.g., products that can keep the bride's hair in place during many hours of activity).[76][77][78] Wedding clients may also receive a markup simply because they are more likely to pay compared to other consumers.[76] Clients are also less likely to understand what a baseline price for these products are given that they are not commonplace purchases.[79]
By country
Globe icon.
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with Vietnam and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (June 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Main article: Wedding customs by country
Vietnam
Main article: Traditional Vietnamese wedding
Wedding of professor Nguyễn Văn Huyên and Ms. Vi Kim Ngọc in 1936. The bride was wearing áo nhật bình, the groom was wearing áo ngũ thân and they used khăn vấn on their head.
In the past, the Vietnamese called this ceremony the "bride-fetching ceremony".[80][81] Nowadays, it is commonly referred to as the "wedding ceremony" or "nuptial ceremony".[82][83] It is a celebration to honor the happiness of the bride, groom, and their two families.[84][85] This ceremony is also considered important in some societies and is usually only held after the couple has obtained a marriage certificate from the government.[86][87] Vietnamese weddings often require choosing an auspicious date for the ceremony and the bride's arrival at the groom's house.[88][89]
See also
Wedding customs by country
White wedding
Wedding dress
Wedding reception
Wedding cake
Elopement
Collective wedding
Black wedding
Relationship science
Interethnic marriage
Interracial marriage
Interfaith marriage
Interdenominational marriage
Inter-caste marriage
Transnational marriage
Gay marriage
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for details. Gavira, Juan. "Characteristics of a Spanish wedding" Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Juangavira.com
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admin (August 23, 2023). "Cake Decorating Courses: Mastering the Art of Edible Elegance". Decor Mastery. Retrieved October 7, 2023.
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The dictionary definition of wedding at Wiktionary
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Cathedral (politics).
For other uses, see Cathedral (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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The Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral in Florence in Italy. Its dome by Filippo Brunelleschi, the largest brick dome in the world,[1][2] is considered a masterpiece of world architecture.
A cathedral is a church that contains the cathedra (Greek for 'seat') of a bishop,[3] thus serving as the central church of a diocese, conference, or episcopate.[4] Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually specific to those Christian denominations with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and some Lutheran churches.[4] Church buildings embodying the functions of a cathedral first appeared in Italy, Gaul, Spain, and North Africa in the 4th century, but cathedrals did not become universal within the Western Catholic Church until the 12th century, by which time they had developed architectural forms, institutional structures, and legal identities distinct from parish churches, monastic churches, and episcopal residences. The cathedral is more important in the hierarchy than the church because it is from the cathedral that the bishop governs the area under his or her administrative authority.[5][6][7]
Following the Protestant Reformation, the Christian church in several parts of Western Europe, such as Scotland, the Netherlands, certain Swiss Cantons and parts of Germany, adopted a presbyterian polity that did away with bishops altogether. Where ancient cathedral buildings in these lands are still in use for congregational worship, they generally retain the title and dignity of "cathedral", maintaining and developing distinct cathedral functions, but void of hierarchical supremacy. From the 16th century onwards, but especially since the 19th century, churches originating in Western Europe have undertaken vigorous programmes of missionary activity, leading to the founding of large numbers of new dioceses with associated cathedral establishments of varying forms in Asia, Africa, Australasia, Oceania and the Americas. In addition, both the Catholic Church and Orthodox churches have formed new dioceses within formerly Protestant lands for converts and migrant co-religionists. Consequently, it is not uncommon to find Christians in a single city being served by three or more cathedrals of differing denominations. For example, London is home to the Anglican St Paul’s Cathedral, the Catholic Westminster Cathedral & St George's Cathedral, and several Eastern Orthodox cathedrals serving different national communities.[1]
Etymology and definition
The cathedra of the Pope as Bishop of Rome, Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
Etchmiadzin cathedral in Vagarshapat, Armenia, believed to be the oldest cathedral in the world.
The Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta is a Catholic cathedral in Nepi, Italy
The Cathedral of Brasilia in Brazil takes a modernist form
St Paul's Cathedral is a landmark of London
The word cathedral is derived from the French cathédrale, which came from the Latin ecclesia cathedralis and from the cathedra ('seat'), and ultimately from the Ancient Greek καθέδρα (kathédra), 'seat, bench', from κατά (kata) 'down' and ἕδρα (hedra) 'seat, base, chair'.
The word refers to the presence and prominence of the bishop's or archbishop's chair or throne, raised above both clergy and laity, and originally located facing the congregation from behind the high altar. In the ancient world, the chair, on a raised dais, was the distinctive mark of a teacher or rhetor and thus symbolises the bishop's role as teacher. A raised throne within a basilican hall was also definitive for a Late Antique presiding magistrate; and so the cathedra also symbolises the bishop's role in governing his diocese.
The word cathedral, as the seat of a bishop, is found in most languages; however in Europe a cathedral church can be referred to as a duomo (in Italian) or Dom (e.g. German, Dutch, etc.), from the Latin term domus ecclesiae (house of the church) or domus episcopalis (episcopal house). While the terms are not synonymous (a duomo is a collegiate church, similar to the English "minster") many cathedral churches are also collegiate churches, so that duomo, and Dom, have become the common names for a cathedral in those countries. It is also common in parts of the Iberian Peninsula to use Sé (in Portuguese), and Seu (in Catalan, with its Spanish form Seo), all of them from the Latin term episcopalis sedes, meaning "episcopal seat".
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Latin word cathedral commonly translates as katholikon (sobor in Slavic languages), meaning 'assembly', but this title is also applied to monastic and other major churches without episcopal responsibilities. When the church at which an archbishop or "metropolitan" presides is specifically intended, the term kathedrikós naós (lit. 'cathedral temple') is used.
The episcopal throne embodies the principle that only a bishop makes a cathedral, and this still applies even in those churches that no longer have bishops, but retain cathedral dignity and functions in ancient churches over which bishops formerly presided. But the throne can also embody the principle that a cathedral makes a bishop; both specifically, in that the bishop is elected within the cathedral and is inaugurated by being enthroned within the cathedral by acclamation of clergy and laity; and also generally, in that the bishops' essential qualifications of regular prayer, higher learning and musical worship were for many centuries, primarily accessible through cathedral functions. In this there is a distinction between those church traditions, predominantly those of Eastern Orthodox Christianity but formerly also including Celtic churches in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, whose bishops came to be made in monasteries; and those church traditions whose bishops have tended predominantly to arise through the ranks of cathedral clergy.[8]
In the Catholic or Roman Catholic tradition, the term cathedral correctly applies only to a church that houses the seat of the bishop of a diocese. The abbey church of a territorial abbey serves the same function (that is, houses the seat of the abbot), but does not acquire the title. In any other jurisdiction canonically equivalent to a diocese but not canonically erected as such (prelature, vicariate, ordinariate, prefecture, apostolic administration), the church that serves this function is correctly called the "principal church" of the respective entity—though some have coopted the term cathedral anyway. The Catholic Church also uses the following terms.
A pro-cathedral is a parish or other church used temporarily as a cathedral, usually while the cathedral of a diocese is under construction, renovation, or repair. This designation applies only as long as the temporary use continues.
A co-cathedral is a second cathedral in a diocese that has two sees. This situation can arise in various ways such as a merger of two former dioceses, preparation to split a diocese, or perceived need to perform cathedral functions in a second location due to the expanse of the diocesan territory.
A proto-cathedral (lit. 'first cathedral') is the former cathedral of a transferred see.
Despite its size and historic importance, St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the Holy See of the Catholic Church, is not a cathedral.[9]
The cathedral church of a metropolitan bishop is called a metropolitan cathedral.
The term cathedral actually carries no implication as to the size or ornateness of the building, although many cathedrals are impressive edifices simply because diocesan celebrations typically require the capacity of one of the larger churches in the diocese. Thus, the term cathedral is often applied colloquially to large and impressive churches that do not function as cathedrals (e.g. the Arctic Cathedral in Tromsø, Norway). Simon Jenkins' guidebook on European cathedrals intentionally includes several churches that have never been cathedrals (Ulm Minster and the Sagrada Família, a minor basilica in Barcelona) or that were formerly designated so (Westminster Abbey and Basel Minster).[10]
History and organization of the Early Church
Origins and characteristics of the first cathedrals in Europe
The Patriarchal Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome.
The history of cathedrals commenced in the year 313, when the emperor Constantine the Great personally adopted Christianity and initiated the Peace of the Church. Indeed, in strict terminology, there could not have been "cathedrals" before that date, as before the 4th century there were no Christian "cathedrae"; bishops were never seated when leading congregational worship, but instead presided standing on a raised platform or pulpitum. In the third century, the phrase "ascending the platform", ad pulpitum venire, becomes the standard term for Christian ordination. During the siege of Dura Europos in 256, a complete Christian house church, or domus ecclesiae was entombed in a defensive bank, surviving when excavated, in places to wall-top height. The Dura church had been converted out of a large urban courtyard house of standard form, in which two rooms had been knocked together to make an assembly hall, capable of holding 60-75 standing; while a tank had been inserted in a room on the opposite side of the courtyard as a baptistery, with rich wall paintings above it. The large room was indeed found to have a raised pulpitum at one end, big enough for one person in turn to read, preach and preside from; but too low to have been surmounted by a throne, and too small to have contained an altar. Otherwise the large room had no decoration or distinctive features at all.
In 269, soon after Dura fell to the Persian army, a body of clerics assembled a charge sheet against the bishop of Antioch, Paul of Samosata, in the form of an open letter. Amongst the accusations was that Paul, who had received the civil rank of ducenarius due to contacts in the imperial court, had improperly erected an enclosure, or secretum, for himself in the church of Antioch; that within this enclosure he had erected a throne from which he presided in worship; and that he had trained a female choir to sing hymns of his own devising. These practices were all condemned as innovations, improperly importing the symbols of his secular Roman magistracy into church ritual; while presumptuously and blasphemously asserting that the person of the bishop in eucharistic worship is seated in the place of Christ himself. Still in a hundred years, all bishops in the Mediterranean world had cathedrals, all sat on thrones within an enclosed sanctuary space, and all had established trained choirs to enhance eucharistic worship.
The driving principle underlying this change was the acceptance by bishops, more or less willingly, of an imperial invitation to adopt and maintain the duties, dignity and insignia proper to a public magistrate.[11] Characteristically a Roman magistrate presided from a raised throne in a large, richly decorated and aisled rectangular hall called a basilica; and now bishops would do the same. The earliest of these new basilican cathedrals of which substantial remains are still visible (and maybe amongst the very earliest to be built) is below the Cathedral of Aquileia on the northern tip of the Adriatic sea. Dated from a mosaic inscription between 313 and 319, the complex consisted of two parallel east–west aisled halls of similar size; with a third smaller north–south cross-hall connecting them, which has been interpreted as the presence hall of the episcopium or bishop's residence. The three halls create an open courtyard, in which was originally located a separate baptistery. Surviving from both large basilican halls are rich mosaic pavements showing (amongst other scenes) Jonah and the Whale, and a series of, mainly female, donor portraits. It appears that similar cathedrals of double-basilica and baptistry were soon afterwards erected in Milan, Trier and Pavia; but that subsequently single-basilican churches became the more common cathedral model.
Constantine's declaration of imperial favour towards Christianity transformed all aspects of Christian life in the Roman Empire. From being a minority religion, largely confined to urban areas and restricted social groupings, and subject to official hostility and occasional persecution; Christianity acquired greatly expanded numbers of potential adherents of all classes, initially still within city areas, but eventually extending out to the pagus, the city's rural hinterland. The consequence was a radical expansion in the buildings, funding and personnel of associated Church establishments throughout the 4th century. The first cathedrals represent this expansion in material form.
Buildings
The location and layout of the first cathedrals varied substantially from city to city, although most, as at Aquileia, tended to be sited within the city walls but away from the urban centre; certain elements are almost always found.
Basilicas
The Basilica of Saint Mary Major, Rome
Basilican halls had previously been characteristic of major civic complexes and military headquarters buildings; but now became the standard structure for accommodating large Christian congregations. From now on, the term basilica denotes any substantial church building. These new basilicas were wholly different in scale from earlier Christian assembly halls, as they were also different in form from any Roman non-Christian temple or religious structure. The halls were longitudinal, aisled, and flooded with light from large clerestory windows. Floors and walls were richly decorated with mosaic and inlay – usually in abstract or floral patterns. The two original double basilicas at Aquileia had both been about 37m by 17m in size, but within 30 years one hall was quadrupled to 73m by 31m. This expanded basilica now demonstrated three additional features that became characteristic of early cathedrals: an enclosure at the eastern end of the church surrounding the altar; a synthronos east of the altar facing west, and consisting of a raised dais with a centrally place bishop's throne and benches either side for the clergy of his familia; and a partitioned-off narthex at the western end into which catechumens would withdraw during the central act of the Eucharistic liturgy.
Baptisteries
The baptistery in the Dura church was about 1m square and 1m deep; baptismal candidates could stand in it, but could not be immersed. In the new cathedrals, as had been the case before, only bishops baptised; and ceremonies were held not more than twice a year to allow for suitable periods of instruction. So baptisteries needed to be greatly increased in size, with associated accommodation to ensure privacy in undressing, anointing and redressing; and the baptismal tank, commonly octagonal, was now fully deep enough for total immersion, and wide enough to accommodate both the candidate and an assisting male or female deacon. Baptisteries commonly adopted centralised plan forms derived from funerary chapels; and are invariably separate from the congregational basilica.
The Palais de la Berbie, [fr] an episcopal palace in Albi, France
Episcopium
No one lived in the house church at Dura; such residential facilities as the latrine and kitchen were removed in the conversion. But cathedral complexes always included an episcopal residence. Prominent amongst the charges that had been directed against Paul of Samosata had been his alleged over-familiarity with pious women. As was common, Paul had been married when elected bishop; and again, as was universally expected for a bishop, he had then ceased sexual contact with his wife and no longer cohabited with her. But his accusers charged that, by continuing to associate with other women (even without any indication of actual impropriety) he was creating an unacceptable potential for scandal. To avoid similar such occasions arising, it was necessary for the new cathedrals to create male-only living quarters for the bishop and his entire establishment; and since, in churches in the West, all presbyters and deacons were also expected to live apart from their wives after ordination, these living quarters, the episcopium, were necessarily substantial in extent. In addition to eating and sleeping quarters for ordained boys and men, the episcopium also commonly provided private dining halls for the hospitality expected of the bishop's enhanced social status, a private oratory or chapel for the bishop, and often a bath house.
Finances
Chartres Cathedral, France, a famous landmark that draws both pilgrims and art lovers.
Just as the episcopal residence was integral within the complex of cathedral buildings, so too there was no distinction between episcopal, diocesan and cathedral property and endowments. In principle, all diocesan income was paid into a common fund, and divided into four fixed shares for each main area of expenditure; the Bishop himself; the cathedral clergy; the fabric and lighting of cathedral and city churches; and charitable donations. Many diocese already held substantial endowments, but income increased enormously with the Peace of the Church; partly due to imperial subsidies in kind, but mainly from private bequests and regular private benefactions (often called 'first fruits'); although at this date, tithe was never paid to the church. In addition, many individual landowners supported private chapels and oratories on their own property; and endowed independent charitable institutions, and eventually monasteries and nunneries too.
Bishop's share
Augustine of Hippo estimated his personal income as being 20 times that of his father, a minor civil servant; and Augustine was by no means the wealthiest bishop in North Africa. But in accepting from Constantine the status of civil magistrates, bishops were now also committed to substantial expenditure to maintain their new style and status; and also to fulfil the associated duties, for instance in employing qualified legal assessors to support them when sitting as civil judges.
Clergy share
The Milan Cathedral is a Gothic style cathedral in Italy
All ordained clerics attached to the cathedral were paid through stipends from the general fund. This applied both to the clergy working directly within the cathedral itself, and also to the clergy, called canonici attached to churches founded by the bishop within the city. From the end of the 4th century, as the mission of the church extended more into rural areas, 'baptistery churches' were founded in more distant villages, so that rural populations could receive the bishop's baptism locally; and the clergy in these churches also counted as canonici and drew a regular stipend.
Fabric share
Plentiful donor inscriptions show that most new church building programmes; mosaics, roofs, furnishings, were financed by private donations. The costs of maintenance and lighting, however, fell on the general fund. This also applied to the churches, known as tituli, served directly by the bishop's clergy, generally also including any surviving house churches from the period before the Peace of the Church and the rural baptistery churches; but not to the chapels, called parochiae, established by rural landowners for the convenience of their tenants. The bishop, in respect of his civil status, was expected to contribute to public works of general benefit; aqueducts, bridges, watercourses.
Charitable share
In all cities, bishops dedicated substantial sums to the support of widows, orphans and the poor. Such donations had been a strong feature of the church in earlier centuries, but tended then to be specifically directed to the Christian needy. Now the charitable compass became general. Bishops were especially expected to take responsibility for raising ransom funds, where local persons had fallen captive. In addition, it was expected that each diocese would support a xenodochium, a hostel for the homeless and strangers.
Personnel
Noto Cathedral, Sicily, Italy
Just as the status of the bishop was transformed at the Peace of the Church; so too was that of the male clergy. With the bishop now resident in the episcopium the other male clergy came to be recognised as his formal familia, in mark of which male clergy now received the tonsure by shaving of their heads; this being originally a Roman badge of adoption. The early church had recognised the orders of bishop, presbyter (priest) and deacon, but a range of minor orders had since grown up in addition; and all were tonsured. These orders now tended to be understood as clerical 'ranks', equivalent to those in the military, such that the male clergy are now often referred to as a "clerical militia". And as in the Roman military or civil service, promotion was expected to follow the principle of cursus honorum, rising through the ranks, with the expectation that ideally, a minimum period would be served in each. The female orders of virgin, widow and (female) deacon remained explicitly outside the bishop's familia; and so they did not receive the tonsure and nor did they progress through the cursus honorum. But all orders of cathedral clergy, male and female, increased dramatically in numbers. Around 540 Justinian ordered that the clerical payroll of Hagia Sophia be strictly limited to 60 presbyters, 100 male deacons, 90 subdeacons, 110 lectors, 25 singers, 100 doorkeepers and 40 female deacons; 525 in all.
Bishops
Bishops were at the head of the local church; but not explicitly within the cursus honorum, as appointment was by election from the local clergy and people. The clergy tended to favour appointment of bishops from within the ranks of cathedral presbyters; but local lay choice often tended rather to outsiders, either a spectacular holy man, hermit or ascetic; or otherwise a senior civil servant or diplomat, who might have favourable contacts to exploit at court. But most bishops came from the curial class, that is those holding the hereditary rank of decurion with the obligation to serve on the city council, as only persons of this class and above would be likely to have a full rhetorical education in Greek and Latin grammar; without which it was not possible for a boy raised with a knowledge only of Late Antique vernacular speech to express himself in approved classical linguistic forms.
Priests and archpriests
São Paulo Cathedral in Brazil is a representative modern cathedral built in Neo-Gothic style.
It was expected that the normal president at both the Eucharist and Baptism would be the bishop, who would celebrate in the cathedral and in titular churches in turn. However, in practice, the bishop needed deputies for the Eucharist and also for the Divine Office of daily prayer, and this duty fell to the priests. The bishop selected a senior priest as archpriest who acted as his official deputy in all ritual matters and as head of the familia. The archpriest was also responsible for the cathedral school. After the 5th century, there were no longer state-supported secular teachers of rhetoric and grammar in the West (other than in parts of Italy) and so the church would have to educate its own.
Deacons, subdeacons and archdeacons
Just as the presbyters deputised for the bishop in ritual matters, so the deacons deputised in administrative and financial matters, especially in the raising and delivering of charity. At the head of the diaconate was the archdeacon; the bishop's main deputy in managerial affairs. Originally inferior in rank to the archpriest, the archdeacon by the sixth century had established clear pre-eminence. Subdeacons assisted the deacons, but unlike them were allowed to marry after ordination; consequently many clerics stopped the cursus honorum at this point, and it was not unusual for a subdeacon to be elected bishop; and even Pope.
Doorkeepers, exorcists, lectors, acolytes and primicerius
In practice, the first three of these orders tended to be given together, and were typically applied to boys as young as seven. These boy lectors were too young for the grammar school, but were valued as choristers, and so were included in the Schola Cantorum or choir school. Originally under the responsibility of the deacons, the organisation of choirs was reformed by Pope Gregory the Great, who introduced the office of primicerius or head cantor for this purpose. This proved a vital reform; as without any comprehensive system of musical notation, the only way that sacred music could be maintained and passed on was through professional choirs of sound musical training undertaking cathedral worship – and such skills are not guaranteed to be present in high-ranking ecclesiastics.
Women's orders: virgins, widows and deaconesses
These orders had been of considerable importance in earlier centuries; but tended to be sidelined in cathedrals from the 4th century onwards. So long as adult baptism continued as a regular occurrence, female deacons would continue to be needed for that service; but otherwise the main factor maintaining these orders was a knock-on effect from the rule of continence applied to bishops, presbyters and deacons. When a man became ordained, and moved into the episcopium with the rest of the bishop's familia; then there would usually also be a requirement for support to their mothers, wives and daughters; and the orders of widows and virgins respectively continued largely for this purpose.
Functions
Former archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams.
Notwithstanding wide differences over time in institutional structures and wider historical contexts; the key functions established for the first cathedrals have tended to remain as distinctive cathedral functions down the centuries; a regular cycle of choral prayer; providing a forum for civic leadership; a commitment to higher learning; and the promotion and dissemination of music.
Cathedral churches since 800 AD
Rule of the clergy
Aachen Cathedral, Germany, founded by Charlemagne in 800 AD, coronation place of the Holy Roman Emperor.
Early Middle Ages: religious communities
The history of the body of clergy attached to the cathedral church is obscure, and in each case local considerations affected its development, however the main features were more or less common to all.
Originally the bishop and cathedral clergy formed a kind of religious community, which, while not in the true sense a monastery, was nevertheless often called a monasterium, the word not having the restricted meaning that it afterwards acquired. In this lies the reason for the apparent anomaly that churches like York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral, which never had any monks attached to them, have inherited the name of minster or monastery. In these early communities the clergy often lived apart in their own dwellings, and were not infrequently married.
In the 8th century Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz (743–766), compiled a code of rules for the clergy of the cathedral churches, which, though widely accepted in Germany and other parts of the continent, gained little acceptance in England.
According to Chrodegang's rule, the cathedral clergy were to live under a common roof, occupy a common dormitory and submit to the authority of a special officer. The rule of Chrodegang was, in fact, a modification of the Benedictine rule. Gisa, a native of Lorraine, who was bishop of Wells from 1061 to 1088, introduced it into England, and imposed its observance on the clergy of his cathedral church, but it was not followed for long there, or elsewhere in England.
The cloister of Canterbury Cathedral with monastic buildings beyond
Late Middle Ages: monastic and secular cathedrals
During the 10th and 11th centuries, the cathedral clergy became more definitely organised and were divided into two classes. One was that of a monastic establishment of some recognised order of monks, often the Benedictines, while the other class was that of a college of clergy, bound by no vows except those of their ordination, but governed by a code of statutes or canons: hence the name of "canon". In this way arose the distinction between the monastic and secular cathedral churches. Outside Great Britain, monastic cathedrals are known only at Monreale in Sicily and Downpatrick in Ireland.[12]
In the case of monastic cathedral churches, the internal government was that of the religious order to which the chapter belonged and all the members kept perpetual residence.
The alternative of this was the cathedral ruled by a secular chapter; the dignities of provost, dean, precentor, chancellor, treasurer, etc., came into being for the regulation and good order of the church and its services, while the non-residence of the canons, rather than their perpetual residence, became the rule, and led to their duties being performed by a body of "vicars", who officiated for them at the services of the church.
Reformation
Nidaros Cathedral, Norway, became Lutheran at the Reformation
Prior to the Reformation all cathedrals of Western Europe were of the Roman Catholic Church. In England, much of the structure of the monastic and cathedral system was reconstituted during the English Reformation. Although the cathedrals were retained by the now independent and established Church of England, the monastic cathedral chapters were dissolved by King Henry VIII and, with the exceptions of Bath and Coventry,[13] were refounded by him as chapters of canons with a dean as the head and other clergy as minor canons.
In Germany and other parts of Europe, with the spread of the Lutheran Church, some ancient churches, like Nidaros Cathedral, Norway, and Lübeck Cathedral, Germany, became the seats of Protestant bishops, as in England. Many new churches were built which serve the regional administrative function of a cathedral. However, not all churches that function as the seat of a bishop are known as "cathedral", the custom varying from place to place, according to local tradition. Some are simply designated "church", as occurs at Budolfi Church, the Lutheran cathedral of Aalborg in Denmark.
Roles
Provosts
Metz Cathedral, France, was governed by a provost.
In most of Europe, the earliest head of a secular church seems to have been the provost (praepositus, probst, etc.), who was charged not only with the internal regulation of the church and oversight of the members of the chapter and control of the services, but was also the steward or seneschal of the lands and possessions of the church. The latter often mainly engaged his attention, to the neglect of his domestic and ecclesiastical duties, and complaints were soon raised that the provost was too much mixed in worldly affairs, and was too frequently absent from his spiritual duties.
This led, in many cases, to the institution of a new officer called the "dean", who had charge of that portion of the provost's duties that related to the internal discipline of the chapter and the services of the church.
In some cases, the office of provost was abolished, but in others it was continued: the provost, who was occasionally an archdeacon as well, remaining head of the chapter. This arrangement was most commonly followed in Germany. In England the provost was almost unknown. Bishop Gisa introduced a provost as head of the chapter of Wells Cathedral, but the office was afterwards subordinated to the other dignities and the provost became simply the steward of certain of the prebendal lands. The provost of the collegiate church of Beverley Minster was the most notable instance of such an officer in England, but at Beverley he was an external officer with authority in the government of the church, no stall in the choir and no vote in chapter.
In Germany and Scandinavia, and in a few of the cathedral churches in the south of France, the provost was the ordinary head of the cathedral chapter, but the office was not common elsewhere. As regards France, of 136 cathedral churches existing at the Revolution, 38 only, and those either on the borders of Germany or in the extreme south, had a provost as the head of the chapter. In others the provost existed as a subordinate officer. There were two provosts at Autun, and Lyon and Chartres had four each, all as subordinate officers.
Secular chapter
Chapter House of Oulu Cathedral, Finland
The normal constitution of the chapter of a secular cathedral church comprised four dignitaries (there might be more), in addition to the canons. These are the dean, the precentor, the chancellor and the treasurer. These four dignitaries, occupying the four corner stalls in the choir, are called in many of the statutes the quatuor majores personae of the church.
Deans
The role of dean (from decanus) seems to have derived its designation from the Benedictine "dean" who had ten monks under his charge. The role of dean came into existence to supply the place of the provost in the internal management of the church and chapter. In England every secular cathedral church was headed by a dean who was originally elected by the chapter and confirmed in office by the bishop. The dean is president of the chapter, and within the cathedral has charge of the performance of the services, taking specified portions of them by statute on the principal festivals. The dean sits in the chief stall in the choir, which is usually at the west end of the south side.
The stalls of St. Canice's Cathedral, Kilkenny, Ireland, showing the bishop's throne and precentor's stall.
Precentors
Next to the dean (as a rule) is the precentor (primicerius, cantor, etc.), whose special duty is that of regulating the musical portion of the services. The precentor presides in the dean's absence, and occupies the corresponding stall on the north side, although there are exceptions to this rule, where, as at St Paul's, the archdeacon of the cathedral city ranks second and occupies what is usually the precentor's stall.
Chancellors
The third dignitary is the chancellor (scholasticus, écoldtre, capiscol, magistral, etc.), who must not be confounded with the chancellor of the diocese. The chancellor of the cathedral church is charged with the oversight of its schools, ought to read divinity lectures, and superintend the lections in the choir and correct slovenly readers. The chancellor is often the secretary and librarian of the chapter. In the absence of the dean and precentor, the chancellor is president of the chapter, and within the cathedral is usually assigned the easternmost stall, on the dean's side of the choir.
Treasurers
The fourth dignitary is the treasurer (custo, sacrisla, cheficier) who is guardian of the fabric, and of all the furniture and ornaments of the church, and whose duty was to provide bread and wine for the Eucharist, and candles and incense. The treasurer also regulated such matters as the ringing of the bells. The treasurer's stall is opposite to that of the chancellor.
Other clergy
Interior of the Chapter House at Southwell Cathedral, England.
In many cathedral churches are additional dignitaries, as the praelector, subdean, vice-chancellor, succentor-canonicorum, and others, whose roles came into existence to supply the places of the other absent dignitaries, for non-residence was the fatal blot of the secular churches, and in this they contrasted very badly with the monastic churches, where all the members were in continuous residence. Besides the dignitaries there were the ordinary canons, each of whom, as a rule, held a separate prebend or endowment, besides receiving his share of the common funds of the church.
For the most part the canons also speedily became non-resident, and this led to the distinction of residentiary and non-residentiary canons, until in most churches the number of resident canons became definitely limited in number, and the non-residentiary canons, who no longer shared in the common funds, became generally known as prebendaries only, although by their non-residence they did not forfeit their position as canons, and retained their votes in chapter like the others.
This system of non-residence led also to the institution of vicars choral, each canon having his own vicar, who sat in his stall in his absence, and when the canon was present, in the stall immediately below, on the second form. The vicars had no place or vote in chapter, and, though irremovable except for offences, were the servants of their absent canons whose stalls they occupied, and whose duties they performed. Outside Britain they were often called demi-prebendaries. As time went on the vicars were themselves often incorporated as a kind of lesser chapter, or college, under the supervision of the dean and chapter.
The Palace of the Bishops of Havelberg in Wittstock, Germany.
Relationship of chapter and bishop
There was no distinction between the monastic cathedral chapters and those of the secular canons, in their relation to the bishop or diocese. In both cases the chapter was the bishop's consilium that he was bound to consult on all important matters and without doing so he could not act. Thus, a judicial decision of a bishop needed the confirmation of the chapter before it could be enforced. He could not change the service books, or "use" of the church or diocese, without capitular consent, and there are episcopal acts, such as the appointment of a diocesan chancellor, or vicar general, which still need confirmation by the chapter, but the older theory of the chapter as the bishop's council in ruling the diocese has become a thing of the past, in Europe.
In its corporate capacity the chapter takes charge sede vacante of a diocese. In England, however (except as regards Salisbury and Durham),[14] this custom has never obtained, the two archbishops having, from time immemorial, taken charge of the vacant dioceses in their respective provinces. When, however, either of the sees of Canterbury or York is vacant the chapters of those churches take charge, not only of the diocese, but of the province as well, and incidentally, therefore, of any of the dioceses of the province that may be vacant at the same time.
Functions of a cathedral
Many cathedrals are important landmarks. Cobh Cathedral, Ireland, rises up above the town.
The role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve God in the community, through its hierarchical and organisational position in the church structure. The building itself, by its physical presence, symbolises both the glory of God and of the church. A cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries have traditional functions that are mostly religious in nature, but may also be closely associated with the civil and communal life of the city and region.
Symbolic functions of the building
The cathedral is frequently the most imposing building, and one of the most ancient buildings in its town. The great size and splendor of the cathedral may be out of all proportion to the town itself. The money and talents expended on the building are seen as honoring God, and may also demonstrate both the devotion and the status of the patrons.
Cathedrals are very often oriented east/west, so that the worshipers look towards the rising sun, symbolizing the Risen Christ. The architectural form of the building most frequently has the ground plan of a cross. This form is both functional and symbolic, its symbolism referring to the cross on which Jesus was crucified. The form is liturgically functional as it allows the building to be divided into sections where different activities take place, or that are occupied by different people, such as the clergy, the choir and the laity.
St. Mary's Cathedral, Sydney has a typical cruciform plan.
The main body of the building, making the longer arm of the cross, is called the nave, and is where worshipers congregate; the term is from the Latin word for ship. The cathedral is symbolically a ship bearing the people of God through the storms of life.[15] The nave is also used for major processions, which gather or enter at the furthest door (liturgically generally called the West Door). The aisles on each side of the nave facilitate the movement of people within the building, without disrupting worshipers in the central space.
The arms of the cross are called the transepts and often contain a number of chapels. Farthest from the main entry is the sanctuary where the Blessed Sacrament is laid on the altar or communion table for the consecration. "Sanctuary" means "Holy Place". The word has passed into modern English with an altered meaning because traditionally a criminal who could gain access to this area without capture was thereby given the sanctuary of the church.
Cathedral buildings of the Western European tradition symbolize the progression of the Christian soul towards Salvation. Many cathedrals of Eastern European tradition are centrally planned. These churches are almost always domed. The symbolism in these cathedral structures is of the hierarchy of Earth and Heaven, and often reveals its meaning through the internal decoration of the building with frescoes or mosaics.
Religious functions
Music is an important part of cathedral services. Choir practice at York Minster, England.
Apart from its organisational function as the seat of the bishop, and the meeting place for the chapter of the diocese, the cathedral has a liturgical function in offering daily church services. Most cathedrals have at least three services of worship every day, often taking the form of matins, Holy Communion and an evening service which is often sung by the precentor and choir. There are often additional services on Sunday. Cathedrals generally have an area dedicated to the performance of choral services and with seating specifically for the choir and dignitaries of the church and town. This part of the building is called the Choir or Quire, and is generally located between the sanctuary and the nave. Because music often plays an important part in the performance of the liturgy, cathedrals generally have a pipe organ to accompany the choir.
The baptismal font at Lübeck Cathedral, Germany
Cathedrals always have a font or water basin at which the rite of baptism is performed, in which a person is formally accepted into the Christian church. The font is often placed towards the door because the Baptism signifies entry into the community of the church. In some cathedrals, most particularly in Italy, the rite of baptism is performed in a separate building. One of the functions of the cathedral is the reading and expounding upon the Holy Scripture. The cathedral generally has a lectern from which the scripture is read. This often takes the form of an eagle of brass or carved wood which supports the book on its outstretched wings and is the symbol of John the Evangelist. However, some cathedrals retain elaborate medieval structures on either side of the church, one for the reading of the Gospel and the other for the reading of the Epistle.
The function of expounding on the scriptures is traditionally performed from the pulpit, which is generally constructed in such a way that the voice of the preacher is projected out to the congregation. The pulpit is often decorated with the winged figures of a man, a lion, a bull and an eagle, representing the Gospel writers, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.[16]
The services that are held within the cathedral follow an annual cycle. The designated scriptural readings for each day of the church's year establish a pattern that alternates periods of introspection and penitence with periods of celebration, and is punctuated by the two great celebrations of Christmas and Easter.
Many cathedrals are places of pilgrimage to which people travel in order to worship or venerate a holy object or the reliquary of a saint. Many cathedrals are regarded as places that have provided rewarding religious experiences, where prayers have been answered or miracles have taken place. Pilgrimage was particularly popular in the late medieval period. Some cathedrals such as Santiago de Compostela continue to attract pilgrims.
Civic and social functions
The funeral of the Patriarch Alexy II in the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Moscow
The formal cathedral services are linked to the cycle of the year and respond to the seasons of the Northern Hemisphere, Christmas falling in the winter and Easter in the spring. Cathedrals often hold a service of thanksgiving called Harvest Festival in the autumn.
Births, marriages and deaths are often celebrated by services at cathedrals and the cathedral often acts as a repository of local history by recording these events. The cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebration and sadness with special services. The funerals of those famous within the community are invariably held at cathedrals. People who have served the community or the church are often buried within the cathedral with which they are associated. Alternatively, they may be commemorated by a memorial. Some cathedrals, such as Aachen and Reims are the traditional coronation places of monarchs.
Cathedrals are important meeting places. After a service at Ss. Peter and Paul Cathedral, Sri Lanka
Another civic function of the cathedral is the imparting of significant civil information. Announcements may be to the populace from the steps of the cathedral, or within the cathedral itself.
Most cathedrals have a bell or bells. These are used to announce that a service is soon to take place. They are also used to convey information and celebration. The ringing of peals signifies a time of rejoicing, such as a wedding. An extended ringing of peals or "changes" conveys a time of great civic celebration. The slow tolling of the deepest bell signifies a death or disaster. Many cathedrals have a clock with associated chimes that announce the time. The bells of a cathedral are traditionally used to signal the outbreak and the ending of war.
Cathedrals are often associated with significant secular organisations such as the office of the local mayor and council, the local court, the local regiment, schools, sporting organisations and service clubs. The cathedral often has its own school, primarily for the education of choristers, but often including other children as well.
The cathedral, often being a large building, serves as a meeting place for many people. The cathedral often forms a centre of different activities related to community service, youth activities, study, music and decorative arts.
Buildings
Main articles: Architecture of cathedrals and great churches and List of regional characteristics of European cathedral architecture
Some cathedrals are major tourist destinations and World Heritage Sites. Pisa is one of the best known.
Cathedral buildings, especially those dating from the Medieval period, are frequently the grandest of churches in the diocese (and country). The ancient cathedrals of England, of Northern France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Germany and Sicily, the Baroque cathedrals of South America, and many individual cathedrals from Italy and other parts of Europe, are among the largest and finest religious buildings. Many are renowned for their architecture or their decorative features such as sculpture, stained glass and frescos.
While cathedral buildings, in general, tend to be large, size and grandeur have rarely been essential requirements. Early Celtic and Saxon cathedrals tended to be of diminutive size, as is the Byzantine so-called Little Metropole Cathedral of Athens. In Italy, with a few notable exceptions such as Florence Cathedral and Milan Cathedral, cathedrals are numerous and are often similar in form and size to monastic or large parish churches. In modern times, where functionality is the foremost consideration and where church attendance is low in many countries, a cathedral church may be a modest structure.
Cathedrals of monastic foundation, and some of secular clergy, have cloisters, which traditionally provided an open area where secular activities took place protected from wind and rain. Some cathedrals also have a chapter house where the chapter could meet. In England, where these buildings have survived, they are often octagonal. A cathedral may front onto the main square of a town, as in Florence, or it may be set in a walled close as at Canterbury. There may be a number of associated monastic or clergy buildings, a bishop's palace and often a school to educate the choristers.
Artworks, treasures and tourism
Cathedrals often contain a wealth of artworks. Tourists visiting the interior of St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna.
Autun Cathedral in France, overlooking the Morvan, one of the city's main tourist sights.
Many cathedral buildings are very famous for their architecture and have local and national significance, both artistically and historically. Many are listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Many cathedrals, because of their large size and the fact that they often have towers, spires or domes, have until the 20th century, been the major landmarks in cities or in views across the countryside. With highrise building, civil action has been taken in some cases, such as Cologne Cathedral to prevent the vista of the cathedral from being spoiled.[17]
Because many cathedrals took centuries to build and decorate, they constitute a major artistic investment for the city in which they stand. Not only may the building itself be architecturally significant, but the church often houses treasures such as stained glass, stone and wood statues, historic tombs, richly carved furniture and objects of both artistic and religious significance such as reliquaries. Moreover, the cathedral often plays a major role in telling the story of the town, through its plaques, inscriptions, tombs, stained glass and paintings.
For these reasons, tourists have travelled to cathedrals for hundreds of years. Many cathedrals cater for tourists by charging a fee to any visitors outside service times or requesting a donation or making a charge to take photos. Cathedrals that are particularly popular tourist venues sometimes provide guides, leaflets, souvenirs and cafes.
See also
The staff and congregation of the Cathedral of St Joseph, Dunedin, New Zealand, 2023
icon Christianity portal
Architecture of cathedrals and great churches
Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England
Basilica
Cathedral architects in England
Cathedral floorplan
Duomo
Gothic cathedrals and churches
French Gothic architecture
English Gothic architecture
List of Catholic basilicas
Lists of cathedrals by country
List of highest church naves
List of largest church buildings
List of regional characteristics of European cathedral architecture
List of tallest church buildings
References
"The Duomo of Florence | Tripleman". www.tripleman.com. Archived from the original on 2009-12-06. Retrieved 2010-03-25.
"brunelleschi's dome - Brunelleschi's Dome". Brunelleschisdome.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-25.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, ISBN 0-19-860575-7.
New Standard Encyclopedia, 1998 by Standard Educational Corporation, Chicago, Illinois; page B-262c.
"What's the Difference Between a Church, Chapel, Cathedral, and Basilica?". What's the Difference?. 2019-04-23. Retrieved 2022-04-18.
"What is the difference between a church, a cathedral and a basilica?". Bit of trivia. 2022-04-10. Archived from the original on 2022-04-11. Retrieved 2022-04-18.
"What is the difference between a church and a cathedral?". The Times of India. May 13, 2006. Retrieved 2022-04-18.
Sterk, Andrea; "Renouncing the World yet leading the Church"; Harvard University Press; 2004; p8
Noreen (November 19, 2012). "St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican Is Not The Official Church Of The Pope". Today I Found Out. Retrieved February 14, 2019.
Jenkins, Simon. Europe's 100 Best Cathedrals.
Eusebius. Life of Constantine. p. 4:27,2.
Edwards, Kathleen (1967). The English Secular Cathedrals of the Middle Ages (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. p. 10.
David Knowles; The Religious Orders in England Vol III; p 389
Till, Barry (1993). York Against Durham: The Guardianship of the Spiritualities in the Diocese of Durham Sede Vacante. York: Borthwick Institute Publications. p. 31. ISBN 0903857421.
W. H. Auden, "Cathedrals, Luxury liners laden with souls, Holding to the East their hulls of stone"
T. Francis Bumpus, The Cathedrals and Churches of Belgium.
"Our History". St Louis Cathedral. Retrieved 2018-09-19.
Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cathedrals.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Cathedral".
Carl F. Barnes Jr. "Cathedral". In: Joseph Strayer, ed. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. New York: Scribner's, 1938. Vol. III. pp. 191–92.
Johnson, Paul. British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980. ISBN 0-297-77828-5.
Richard Utz. "The Medieval Cathedral: From Spiritual Site to National Super-Signifier". The Year's Work in Medievalism 15 (2001), 127–31.
Richard Utz. "The Cathedral as Time Machine: Art, Architecture, and Religion." In: The Idea of the Gothic Cathedral. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Meanings of the Medieval Edifice in the Modern Period, ed. Stephanie Glaser (Turnhout: Brepols, 2018). pp. 239–59.
André Vauchez. "La cathédrale". In: Pierre Nora, ed. Les Lieux de Mémoire. Paris: Gallimard, 1997. Vol. III. pp. 3122–34.
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A history of jewellery
Ancient world jewellery
Jewellery is a universal form of adornment. Jewellery made from shells, stone and bones survives from prehistoric times. It is likely that from an early date it was worn as a protection from the dangers of life or as a mark of status or rank.
In the ancient world the discovery of how to work metals was an important stage in the development of the art of jewellery. Over time, metalworking techniques became more sophisticated and decoration more intricate.
Gold, a rare and highly valued material, was buried with the dead so as to accompany its owner into the afterlife. Much archaeological jewellery comes from tombs and hoards. Sometimes, as with the gold collars from Celtic Ireland which have been found folded in half, it appears people may have followed a ritual for the disposal of jewellery.
This collar was found in a bog in Shannongrove, Co. Limerick, Ireland, sometime before 1783. We do not know what it was used for, but it was probably a ceremonial collar. On the inner side of the collar, under each of the circular terminals, is a hole. The collar probably rested on the chest and was held in place by a chain running between the two holes and passing round the back of the neck.
Collar known as The Shannongrove Gorget, maker unknown, late Bronze Age (probably 800-700 BC), Ireland. Museum no. M.35-1948. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Medieval jewellery 1200–1500
The jewellery worn in medieval Europe reflected an intensely hierarchical and status-conscious society. Royalty and the nobility wore gold, silver and precious gems. Lower ranks of society wore base metals, such as copper or pewter. Colour (provided by precious gems and enamel) and protective power were highly valued. Some jewels have cryptic or magical inscriptions, believed to protect the wearer.
Until the late 14th century, gems were usually polished rather than cut. Size and lustrous colour determined their value. Enamels - ground glasses fired at high temperature onto a metal surface - allowed goldsmiths to colour their designs on jewellery. They used a range of techniques to create effects that are still widely used today.
The images decorating the back of this cross were often used as a focus for meditation in the late medieval period. The scenes on the lid show the Instruments of the Passion - scourge, whip, lance, sponge and nails - which were used during the Crucifixion. A tiny fragment of one of them may have formed a relic, stored within the cross’s now empty interior. Pearls symbolised purity, and the red gems may have symbolised sacrificial blood shed by Christ.
Pendant reliquary cross, unknown maker, about 1450-1475, Germany. Museum no. 4561-1858. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Renaissance jewellery
Renaissance jewels shared the age's passion for splendour. Enamels, often covering both sides of the jewel, became more elaborate and colourful and advances in cutting techniques increased the glitter of stones.
The enormous importance of religion in everyday life could be seen in jewellery, as could earthly power - many spectacular pieces were worn as a display of political strength. The designs reflect the new-found interest in the classical world, with mythological figures and scenes becoming popular. The ancient art of gem engraving was revived and the use of portraits reflected another cultural trend - an increased artistic awareness of the individual.
Particular types of stone were thought to protect against specific ailments or threats, ranging from toothache to the evil eye. They could also encourage or banish such characteristics as bravery or melancholy. This scorpion etching dates from the 2nd or 1st century BC but has been reused in a medieval ring. Carved Greek or Roman stones were highly valued in the middle ages. They were found in excavations or in surviving earlier pieces of jewellery and traded across Europe. The scorpion had an enduring reputation as a protective amulet. It was believed to heal patients from poisoning and also, as symbol of the Zodiac sign Scorpio, it was associated with water and therefore believed to have a cooling effect on fever. Remedies against poisoning were also made by infusing scorpions in oil and herbs. The Medici Grand Duke Francesco I (d. 1587) published a recipe for an anti-poison oil effective against 'all sorts of poisons ingested by mouth, stings and bites'.
Ring, maker unknown, setting 15th century, centre 2nd century BC-1st century BC. Museum no. 724-1871. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
17th-century jewellery
By the mid-17th century, changes in fashion had introduced new styles of jewellery. While dark fabrics required elaborate gold jewellery, the new softer pastel shades became graceful backdrops for gemstones and pearls. Expanding global trade made gemstones ever more available. Advances in cutting techniques increased the sparkle of gemstones in candlelight.
The most impressive jewels were often large bodice or breast ornaments, which had to be pinned or stitched to stiff dress fabrics. The swirling foliate decoration of the jewels shows new enthusiasm for bow motifs and botanical ornaments. The central bow in this necklace is a magnificent example of a mid-17th century jewel. The painted opaque enamel was a recent innovation, said to have been developed by a Frenchman, Jean Toutin of Châteaudun. This striking colour combination was frequently used in enamels around this date.
Necklace with Sapphire Pendant, bow about 1660, chain and pendant probably 18-1900, Europe. Museum no. M.95-1909. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
18th-century jewellery
The end of the previous century had seen the development of the brilliant-cut with its multiple facets. Diamonds sparkled as never before and came to dominate jewellery design. Frequently mounted in silver to enhance the stone's white colour, magnificent sets of diamond jewels were essential for court life. The largest were worn on the bodice, while smaller ornaments could be scattered over an outfit.
Owing to its high intrinsic value, little diamond jewellery from this period survives. Owners often sold it or re-set the gems into more fashionable designs.
From around 1640, light swords with short, flexible, pointed blades appeared in response to new fencing techniques that emphasised thrusting at speed. They were worn increasingly with civilian clothes as ‘small swords’, offering a means of self-defence but largely denoting status for the well-dressed gentleman.
Small swords were items of male jewellery. By the 1750s, their elaborate gold and silver hilts, mounted with precious stones and fine enamelling, were the products of the goldsmith and jeweller rather than the swordsmith. They were often given as rewards for distinguished military and naval service.
This sword is inscribed: ‘PRESENTED by the Committee of Merchants &c OF LONDON to LIEUT.T FRANCIS DOUGLAS for his Spirited and active conduct on board His Majesty’s Ship the REPULSE. Ja.s Alms Esq.r Commander during the MUTINY at the NORE in 1797. Marine Society Office, May 1o 1798 } Hugh Inglis Esq.r Chairman’.
Sword, mark of James Morisset, 1798-9, England. Museum no. 274-1, 2-1869. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Francis Douglas was rewarded for his role in suppressing a violent mutiny among sailors at the Nore, a Royal Navy anchorage in the Thames Estuary in 1797. According to an account by an eyewitness, published in The Sheerness Guardian 70 years later, the ship, Repulse, made a 'miraculous' escape from the mutineers reaching shore despite receiving 'as was calculated two hundred shot'.
James Morisset, one of London’s most celebrated makers of enamelled gold dress-swords and boxes, was commissioned to produce this sword.
19th-century jewellery
The 19th century was a period of huge industrial and social change, but in jewellery design the focus was often on the past. In the first decades classical styles were popular, evoking the glories of ancient Greece and Rome. This interest in antiquities was stimulated by fresh archaeological discoveries. Goldsmiths attempted to revive ancient techniques and made jewellery that imitated, or was in the style of, archaeological jewellery.
There was also an interest in jewels inspired by the Medieval and Renaissance periods. It is a testament to the period's eclectic nature that jewellers such as the Castellani and Giuliano worked in archaeological and historical styles at the same time.
Naturalistic jewellery, decorated with clearly recognisable flowers and fruit, was also popular for much of this period. These motifs first became fashionable in the early years of the century, with the widespread interest in botany and the influence of Romantic poets such as Wordsworth. This large spray of assorted flowers has a pin fastening at the back and would have been worn as a bodice ornament. Some of the diamond flowers are set on springs, which would increase their sparkle considerably as the wearer moved. Individual flower sprays could be removed and used as hair ornaments.
By the 1850s the delicate early designs had given way to more extravagant and complex compositions of flowers and foliage. At the same time, flowers were used to express love and friendship. The colours in nature were matched by coloured gemstones, and a 'language of flowers' spelt out special messages. In contrast with earlier periods, the more elaborate jewellery was worn almost exclusively by women.
Bodice ornament in the form of a floral spray, about 1850, possibly made in England. Museum no. M.115-1951. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Arts & crafts jewellery
Developing in the last years of the 19th century, the Arts and Crafts movement was based on a profound unease with the industrialised world. Its jewellers rejected the machine-led factory system - by now the source of most affordable pieces - and instead focused on hand-crafting individual jewels. This process, they believed, would improve the soul of the workman as well as the end design.
Arts and Crafts jewellers avoided large, faceted stones, relying instead on the natural beauty of cabochon (shaped and polished) gems. They replaced the repetition and regularity of mainstream settings with curving or figurative designs, often with a symbolic meaning.
The designer of this brooch, C. R. Ashbee, was a man of immense talents and energy and a defining figure in the Arts and Crafts Movement. In 1888 he founded the Guild of Handicraft in the East End of London with the intention of reviving traditional craft skills and providing satisfying employment in a deprived area of the city. Trained originally as an architect, he is known also for his highly innovative furniture, metalwork, silver and jewellery designs.
The peacock was one of Ashbee's favourite and most distinctive motifs and he is known to have designed about a dozen peacock jewels in the years around 1900. Family tradition is that this brooch was designed for his wife, Janet. It was made by Ashbee's Guild of Handicraft Ltd. at Essex House on the Mile End Road, London.
Pendant-brooch (detail), designed by C.R. Ashbee and made by the Guild of Handicraft, about 1900, England. Museum no. M.31-2005. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Art Nouveau jewellery and the Garland style 1895–1910
The Art Nouveau style caused a dramatic shift in jewellery design, reaching a peak around 1900 when it triumphed at the Paris International Exhibition.
Its followers created sinuous, organic pieces whose undercurrents of eroticism and death were a world away from the floral motifs of earlier generations. Art Nouveau jewellers like René Lalique also distanced themselves from conventional precious stones and put greater emphasis on the subtle effects of materials such as glass, horn and enamel.
However, the style's radical look was not for everyone or for every occasion. Superb diamond jewellery was made in the 'garland style', a highly creative re-interpretation of 18th- and early 19th-century designs.
The maker of this orchid hair ornament, Philippe Wolfers, was the most prestigious of the Art Nouveau jewellers working in Brussels. Like his Parisian contemporary René Lalique, he was greatly influenced by the natural world. These exotic orchids feature in the work of both. The technical achievement of enamelling in plique-a-jour (backless) enamel on these undulating surfaces is extraordinary.
Hair ornament, made by Philippe Wolfers, 1905-7, Belgium. Museum no. M.11-1962. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Art Deco jewellery to the 1950s
Although buffeted by cycles of boom, depression and war, jewellery design between the 1920s and 1950s continued to be both innovative and glamorous. Sharp, geometric patterns celebrated the machine age, while exotic creations inspired by the Near and Far East hinted that jewellery fashions were truly international. New York now rivalled Paris as a centre for fashion, and European jewellery houses could expect to sell to, as well as buy from, the Indian subcontinent.
Dense concentrations of gemstones are characteristic of Art Deco jewellery. From about 1933 gold returned to fashion, partly because it was cheaper than platinum.
Artists and designers from other fields also became involved in jewellery design. Their work foreshadows the new directions jewellery would take.
This brooch commemorates the breaking of the World Land Speed Record by Captain George Eyston in 1937. The car depicted is Thunderbolt, which Captain Eyston designed, built and drove. It was powered by two aero engines made by the firm of Rolls-Royce, which presented the brooch to Captain Eyston’s wife.
Commemorative Brooch, 1937, England. Museum no. M.115-1993. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Contemporary jewellery
Since the 1960s the boundaries of jewellery have been continually redefined. Conventions have been challenged by successive generations of independent jewellers, often educated at art college and immersed in radical ideas.
New technologies and non-precious materials, including plastics, paper and textiles, have overturned the notions of status traditionally implicit in jewellery.
Avant-garde artist-jewellers have explored the interaction of jewellery with the body, pushing the boundaries of scale and wearability to the limits. Jewellery has developed into wearable art. The debate on its relationship to Fine Art continues.
Brooch, designed and engraved by Malcolm Appleby, made by Roger Doyle, 1975, England. Museum no. M.314-1977. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London