Rationing in the United Kingdom
Civilian rationing: A shopkeeper cancels the coupons in a British housewife's ration book in 1943.
Rationing was introduced temporarily by the British government several times during the 20th century, during and immediately after a war.[1][2]
At the start of the Second World War in 1939, the United Kingdom was importing 20 million long tons of food per year, including about 70% of its cheese and sugar, almost 80% of fruit and about 70% of cereals and fats. The UK also imported more than half of its meat and relied on imported feed to support its domestic meat production. The civilian population of the country was about 50 million.[3] It was one of the principal strategies of the Germans in the Battle of the Atlantic to attack shipping bound for Britain, restricting British industry and potentially starving the nation into submission.
To deal with sometimes extreme shortages, the Ministry of Food instituted a system of rationing. To buy most rationed items, each person had to register at chosen shops and was provided with a ration book containing coupons. The shopkeeper was provided with enough food for registered customers. Purchasers had to present ration books when shopping so that the coupon or coupons could be cancelled as these pertained to rationed items. Rationed items had to be purchased and paid for as usual, although their price was strictly controlled by the government and many essential foodstuffs were subsidised; rationing restricted what items and what amount could be purchased as well as what they would cost. Items that were not rationed could be scarce. Prices of some unrationed items were also controlled; prices for many items not controlled were unaffordably high for most people.
During the Second World War rationing—not restricted to food—was part of a strategy including controlled prices, subsidies and government-enforced standards, with the goals of managing scarcity and prioritising the armed forces and essential services, and trying to make available to everyone an adequate and affordable supply of goods of acceptable quality.
First World War 1914–1918
Main article: History of the United Kingdom during the First World War
See also: UK population over time
A First World War government leaflet detailing the consequences of breaking the rationing laws
In line with its business as usual policy during the First World War, the government was initially reluctant to try to control the food markets.[4] It fought off attempts to introduce minimum prices in cereal production, though relenting in the area of control of essential imports (sugar, meat, and grains). When it did introduce changes, they were limited. In 1916, it became illegal to consume more than two courses while lunching in a public eating place or more than three for dinner; fines were introduced for members of the public found feeding the pigeons or stray animals.[5]: 381
In January 1917, Germany started unrestricted submarine warfare to try to starve Britain into submission. To meet this threat, voluntary rationing was introduced in February 1917. Bread was subsidised from September that year; prompted by local authorities taking matters into their own hands, compulsory rationing was introduced in stages between December 1917 and February 1918 as Britain's supply of wheat decreased to just six weeks' consumption.[6] To help the process, ration books were introduced in July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, and sugar.[7]
Each consumer was tied to a retailer. The basic ration of sugar, butter or margarine, tea, jam, bacon and other meat came to about 1,680 calories. It was adjusted for vegetarians, children and workers performing strenuous labour. Nutritional programmes for nursing mothers and young children were established by many local authorities. Unlike most of Europe bread was not rationed. It was argued that the civilian population's health improved under rationing, though tuberculosis increased.[8]: 152–3 During the war, average energy intake decreased by only 3%, but protein intake by 6%.[5]: 380–382 Controls were not fully released until 1921.
General strike of 1926
The government made preparations to ration food in 1925, in advance of an expected general strike, and appointed Food Control Officers for each region. In the event, the trade unions of the London docks organised blockades by crowds, but convoys of lorries under military escort took the heart out of the strike, so that the measures did not have to be implemented.[9]
Second World War 1939–1945
See also: Minister of Food (United Kingdom)
Food rationing
A child's ration book, used during the Second World War
Emergency supplies for the 4 million people expected to be evacuated were delivered to destination centres by August 1939, and 50 million ration books were already printed and distributed.[8]: 159
When World War II began in September 1939, petrol was the first commodity to be controlled. On 8 January 1940, bacon, butter, and sugar were rationed. Meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk, canned and dried fruit were rationed subsequently, though not all at once. In June 1942, the Combined Food Board was set up by the United Kingdom and the United States to coordinate the world supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. Almost all foods apart from vegetables and bread were rationed by August 1942. Strict rationing created a black market. Almost all controlled items were rationed by weight; but meat was rationed by price.
Fruits and vegetables
Poster for the "Dig for Victory" campaign, encouraging Britons to supplement their rations by cultivating gardens and allotments
Fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed, but supplies were limited. Some types of imported fruit all but disappeared. Lemons and bananas became unobtainable for most of the war; oranges continued to be sold, but greengrocers customarily reserved them for children and pregnant women. Apples were available from time to time.
Many grew their own vegetables, encouraged by the "Dig for Victory" campaign. In 1942, many young children, questioned about bananas, did not believe they were real.[10] A popular music-hall song, written 20 years previously but sung ironically, was "Yes! We Have No Bananas".
Game
Game meat such as rabbit and pigeon was not rationed. Some British biologists ate laboratory rats.[11][12][13][14][15][16]
Bread
Main article: National Loaf
Bread was not rationed until after the war ended, but the "national loaf" of wholemeal bread replaced the white variety. It was found to be mushy, grey and easy to blame for digestion problems.[17] There were four permitted loaves and slicing and wrapping were not permitted.[8]: 159
Fish
A public information poster detailing additional rations for pregnant women
Fish was not rationed, but prices increased considerably as the war progressed. The government did not ration fish, because fishermen, at risk from enemy attack and mines, had to be paid a premium for their catch in order to fish at all. Prices were controlled from 1941.[18][page needed]
Like other foods, fish was seldom available in abundance. During the war, the Royal Navy requisitioned hundreds of trawlers for military use, leaving primarily smaller vessels, thought less likely to be targeted by Axis forces, to fish. At one point, supplies dropped to 30% of pre-war levels,[18] although this ratio improved to almost half by 1944.[19] Wartime fish and chips was often felt to be below standard because of the low-quality fat available for frying.[citation needed]
Honey
Due to the vital role beekeeping played in British agriculture and industry, special allotments of sugar were allowed for each hive.[20] In 1943, the Ministry of Food announced that beekeepers would qualify for supplies of sugar not exceeding ten pounds per colony to keep their beehives going through the winter, and five pounds for spring feeding. Honey was not rationed, but its price was controlled — as with other unrationed, domestically produced produce, sellers imposed their own restrictions.
Alcohol
All drinks except beer were scarce. Beer was considered a vital foodstuff as it was a morale booster. Brewers were short of labour and suffered from the scarcity of imported barley.[21] A ban on importing sugar for brewing and racking made beer strengths weaker.[22][failed verification]
Fuel
On 13 March 1942 the abolition of the basic petrol ration was announced, effective from the 1 July[23]: 249 (Ivor Novello, a prominent British public figure in the entertainment industry, was sent to prison for four weeks for misusing petrol coupons).[23]: 249–250 Thenceforth, vehicle fuel was only available to official users, such as the emergency services, bus companies and farmers. The priority users of fuel were always the armed forces.[original research?] Fuel supplied to approved users was dyed, and use of this fuel for non-essential purposes was an offence.
Subsidies
In addition to rationing and price controls, the government equalised the food supply through subsidies on items consumed by the poor and the working class. In 1942–43, £145 million was spent on food subsidies, including £35 million on bread, flour and oatmeal, £23 million on meat and the same on potatoes, £11 million on milk, and £13 million on eggs.[24]
Restaurants
Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing but this was resented because of the public perception that "luxury" off-ration foodstuffs were being unfairly obtained by those who could afford to dine regularly in restaurants.[25] In May 1942, the Ministry of Food issued new restrictions on restaurants:[26]
Meals were limited to three courses; only one component dish could contain fish or game or poultry (but not more than one of these)
In general, no meals could be served between 11:00 p.m. and 5:00 a.m. without a special licence
The maximum price of a meal was 5 shillings (equivalent to £15 in 2023). Extra charges allowed for cabaret shows and luxury hotels.
Public catering
Main article: British Restaurant
A British Restaurant in London, 1943
About 2,000 new wartime establishments called British Restaurants were run by local authorities in schools and church halls. Here, a plain but adequate three-course meal cost only 9d (equivalent to £2.21 in 2023), and no ration coupons were required. They evolved from the London County Council's Londoners' Meals Service, which began as an emergency system for feeding people who had had their houses bombed and could no longer live in them. They were open to everyone and mostly served office and industrial workers.[27][28]
Cooking depots were set up in Sheffield and Plymouth, providing roast dinners, stew and pudding. Hot sweet tea was often distributed after bombing raids.[8]: 164
Health effects
See also: UK population change
In December 1939, Elsie Widdowson and Robert McCance of the University of Cambridge tested whether the United Kingdom could survive with only domestic food production if U-boats ended all imports. Using 1938 food production data, they fed themselves and other volunteers one egg, one pound (450 g) of meat and four ounces (110 g) of fish a week; one-quarter imperial pint (140 mL) of milk a day; four ounces (110 g) of margarine; and unlimited amounts of potatoes, vegetables and wholemeal bread.[29]
Two weeks of intensive outdoor exercise simulated the strenuous wartime physical work Britons would likely have to perform. The scientists found that the subjects' health and performance remained very good after three months; the only negative results were the increased time needed for meals to consume the necessary calories from bread and potatoes, and what they described as a "remarkable" increase in flatulence from the large amount of starch in the diet. The scientists also noted that their faeces had increased by 250% in volume.[29]
The results – kept secret until after the war – gave the government confidence that, if necessary, food could be distributed equally to all, including high-value war workers, without causing widespread health problems. Britons' actual wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study, because imports from the United States avoided the U-boats,[29] but rationing improved the health of British people; infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose, excluding deaths caused by hostilities. This was because it ensured that everyone had access to a varied diet with enough vitamins.[27][30] Blackcurrant syrup and later American bottled orange juice was provided free for children under 2. Those under 5 and expectant mothers got subsidised milk. Consumption of fat and sugar declined while consumption of milk and fibre increased.[8]: 161
Standard food rationing during the Second World War
The standard rations during the Second World War were as follows. Quantities are per week unless otherwise stated.[31]
Food rations
Item Maximum level Minimum level April 1945
Bacon and ham 8 oz (227 g) 4 oz (113 g) 4 oz (113 g)
Sugar 16 oz (454 g) 8 oz (227 g) 8 oz (227 g)
Loose tea 4 oz (113 g) 2 oz (57 g) 2 oz (57 g)
Meat 1 s. 2d. 1s 1s. 2d. (equivalent to £3.18 in 2023[32])
Cheese 8 oz (227 g) 1 oz (28 g) 2 oz (57 g)
Vegetarians were allowed an extra 3 oz (85 g) cheese[33]
Preserves 1 lb (0.45 kg) per month
2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade 8 oz (227 g) per month 2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade
or 1 lb (0.45 kg) preserve
or 1 lb (0.45 kg) sugar
Butter 8 oz (227 g) 2 oz (57 g) 2 oz (57 g)
Margarine 12 oz (340 g) 4 oz (113 g) 4 oz (113 g)
Lard 3 oz (85 g) 2 oz (57 g) 2 oz (57 g)
Sweets 16 oz (454 g) per month 8 oz (227 g) per month 12 oz (340 g) per month
Army and Merchant Navy rations
Item Army Rations Home Service Scale Seamen on weekly articles
Men Women
Meat 5 lb 4 oz (2.4 kg) 2 lb 10 oz (1.2 kg) 2 lb 3 oz (0.99 kg)
Bacon and ham
(uncooked, free of bone) 8 oz (230 g) 9 oz (260 g) 8 oz (230 g)
Butter and margarine 13+1⁄4 oz (380 g) (in any proportions of butter and margarine) 10+1⁄2 oz (300 g) (margarine only) 10+1⁄2 oz (300 g)
(not more than 3+1⁄2 oz (99 g) butter)
Cheese 4 oz (110 g) 4 oz (110 g) 4 oz (110 g)
Cooking fats 2 oz (57 g) (may be taken in the form of margarine) – –
Sugar 1 lb 14 oz (850 g) 14 oz (400 g) 14 oz (400 g)
Tea 4 oz (110 g) 2 oz (57 g) 2 oz (57 g)
Preserves
8 oz (230 g) jam and 2 oz (57 g) syrup
10+1⁄2 oz (300 g) for boys and young soldiers battalions:
jam, marmalade or syrup
7 oz (200 g)
(jam, marmalade, syrup) 10+1⁄2 oz (300 g)
(jam, marmalade, syrup)
[34][35]
1s 2d bought about 1 lb 3 oz (540 g) of meat. Offal and sausages were rationed from 1942 to 1944. When sausages were not rationed, the meat needed to make them was so scarce that they often contained a high proportion of bread. Eggs were rationed and "allocated to ordinary [citizens] as available". In 1944, thirty allocations of one egg each were made. Children and some invalids were allowed three a week; expectant mothers two on each allocation.
1 egg per week or 1 packet (makes 12 ersatz eggs) of egg powder per month. Vegetarians were allowed two eggs
plus, 24 points for four weeks for tinned and dried food.
Arrangements were made for vegetarians so that other goods were substituted for their rations of meat.[33]
Milk was supplied at 3 imperial pints (1.7 litres) each week, with priority for expectant mothers and children under 5. 3.5 imp pt (2.0 L) for those under 18. Children unable to attend school 5 imp pt (2.8 L), certain invalids up to 14 imp pt (8.0 L). Each person received one tin of milk powder, equivalent to 8 imperial pints or 4.5 litres, every eight weeks.[36]
Special civilian rations
Persons falling within the following descriptions were allowed 8 oz (230 g) of cheese a week in place of the general ration of 3 oz (85 g):
vegetarians (meat and bacon coupons must be surrendered)
underground mine workers
agricultural workers holding unemployment insurance books or cards bearing stamps marked "Agriculture"
county roadmen
forestry workers (including fellers and hauliers)
land drainage workers (including Catchment Board workers)
members of the Auxiliary Force of the Women's Land Army[35]
railway train crews (including crews of shunting engines but not including dining car staffs)
railway signalmen and permanent way men who have no access to canteen facilities
certain types of agricultural industry workers (workers employed on threshing machines, tractor workers who are not included in the Agricultural Unemployment Insurance Stamp Scheme, hay pressers and trussers).
Weekly supplementary allowances of rationed foods for invalids
Disease Food
supplementary
allowance Quantity Coupons to be
surrendered
Diabetes Butter and margarine 12 oz (340 g) (not more than 4 oz (110 g) butter) Sugar
Diabetes Meat 2s. 4d. adult, 1s. 2d. child under six Sugar
Diabetes – vegetarians only Cheese 8 oz (230 g) Sugar
Hypoglycaemia Sugar 16 oz (450 g) –
Steatorrhoea Meat 4s. 8d. adult, 2s. 4d. child under six Butter and margarine
Nephritis with gross
albuminuria and gross oedema,
also nephrosis Meat 3s. 6d. adult, 1s. 9d. child under six
Non-food rations
Clothing
As the war progressed, rationing was extended to other consumable commodities including clothing, which was controlled on a system of points allocated to different garments.
Clothing Coupon books from 1943–1944
Following the depletion of raw materials and redirection of labour towards wartime manufactures (such as uniforms),[37] alongside rising inflation, and the inclusion of purchase tax on clothing in October 1940, prices of garments and textiles increased.[38] As a result, civilian access to clothing was tightening. Government regulation was required in order to ensure the ability to buy clothing was maintained across the civilian population.[38]
The rationing of cloth, clothing, and footwear was introduced in June 1941, and remained in place until March 1949. Clothes rationing also aimed to restrict the amount of new clothes the public could buy,[39] and therefore reduce the amount of clothing produced for civilians.[37]
Reported in local and national newspapers, clothes rationing came as a surprise to the public, in order to avoid panic-buying.[40] Coupons were to be presented on purchase of clothing, shoes, and fabrics alongside cash payment.[40] Until the issuing of Clothing Coupon books for 1942-43, consumers were to surrender unused margarine coupons from their food ration coupon book when buying clothing.[41] Initially people were allocated 66 points for clothing per year; in 1942, this was cut to 48, in 1943 to 36, and in 1945–1946 to 24.[42]
The Board of Trade promoted Make Do and Mend through posters such as this, c.1943.
Different types of clothes were ascribed different coupon values, determined by how much material and labour went into each item's manufacture. For example, an adult's skirt would require seven coupons and a pair of child's pyjamas six coupons.[38] As well as being used for clothing, coupons could be used for wool, cotton and household textiles. Clothing sized for children under the age of four did not require coupons for purchase.[38]
The prices of second-hand clothing and fur coats were fixed, but no coupons were required to buy them. People were allocated extra coupons for work clothes, such as overalls for factory work.[43] Manual workers, civilian uniform wearers, diplomats, performers and new mothers also received extra coupons.
Garments of the same description but different quality would have different prices but require the same number of coupons; the more affordable clothing would often be less robust and wear out sooner, even with repair.[42] This, therefore, led the Government to implement the Utility Clothing Scheme in September 1941, which was introduced alongside other measures, such as the civilian population being encouraged to repair and remake old clothes; pamphlets were produced by the Ministry of Information with the slogan "Make Do and Mend" in 1943 which gave ideas and instruction as part of a larger campaign which was put in place through collaboration with voluntary organisations.[44][45]
Clothes rationing ended on 15 March 1949.
Soap
All types of soap were rationed. Coupons were allotted by weight or (if liquid) by quantity. In 1945, the ration gave four coupons each month; babies and some workers and invalids were allowed more.[46] A coupon would yield:
4 oz (113 g) bar hard soap
3 oz (85 g) bar toilet soap
1⁄2 oz (14 g) No. 1 liquid soap
6 oz (170 g) soft soap
3 oz (85 g) soap flakes
6 oz (170 g) powdered soap
Fuel
The Fuel and Lighting (Coal) Order 1941 came into force in January 1942. Central heating was prohibited in the summer months.[46] Domestic coal was rationed to 15 long hundredweight (1,680 lb; 762.0 kg) for those in London and the south of England; 20 long hundredweight (2,240 lb; 1,016 kg) for the rest (the southern part of England having generally a milder climate).[46] Some kinds of coal such as anthracite were not rationed, and in coal-mining areas waste coal was eagerly gathered, as it had been in the Great Depression.
Petrol
Petrol rationing was introduced in September 1939 with an allowance of approximately 200 miles (320 kilometres) of motoring per month. The coupons issued related to a car's calculated RAC horsepower and that horsepower's nominal fuel consumption. From July 1942 until June 1945, the basic ration was suspended completely, with essential-user coupons being issued only to those with official sanction. In June 1945, the basic ration was restored to allow about 150 miles (240 km) per month; this was increased in August 1945 to allow about 180 miles (290 km) per month.[47]
Paper
Newspapers were limited from September 1939, at first to 60% of their pre-war consumption of newsprint. Paper supply came under the No 48 Paper Control Order, 4 September 1942, and was controlled by the Ministry of Production. By 1945, newspapers were limited to 25% of their pre-war consumption. Wrapping paper for most goods was prohibited.[48]
The paper shortage often made it more difficult than usual for authors to get work published. In 1944, George Orwell wrote:
In Mr Stanley Unwin's recent pamphlet Publishing in Peace and War, some interesting facts are given about the quantities of paper allotted by the Government for various purposes. Here are the present figures:
Newspapers 250,000 tons
H.M. Stationery Office 100,000 tons
Periodicals (nearly) 50,000 tons
Books 22,000 tons
A particularly interesting detail is that out of the 100,000 tons allotted to the Stationery Office, the War Office gets no less than 25,000 tons, or more than the whole of the book trade put together. ... At the same time paper for books is so short that even the most hackneyed "classic" is liable to be out of print, many schools are short of textbooks, new writers get no chance to start and even established writers have to expect a gap of a year or two years between finishing a book and seeing it published.
— George Orwell, "As I Please", Tribune, 20 October 1944[49]
Other products
Whether rationed or not, many personal-use goods became difficult to obtain because of the shortage of components. Examples included razor blades, baby bottles, alarm clocks, frying pans and pots. Balloons and sugar for cakes for birthday parties were partially or completely unavailable. Couples had to use a mock cardboard and plaster wedding cake in lieu of a real tiered wedding cake, with a smaller cake hidden in the mock cake. Houseplants were impossible to get and people used carrot tops instead.[50] Many fathers saved bits of wood to build toys for Christmas presents,[51] and Christmas trees were almost impossible to obtain due to timber rationing.[52]
Post-Second World War 1945–1954
On 8 May 1945, the Second World War ended in Europe, but rationing continued for several years afterwards. Some aspects of rationing became stricter than they were during the war. Bread was rationed from 21 July 1946 to 24 July 1948. Average body weight fell and potato consumption increased. Certain foodstuffs that the average 1940s British citizen would find unusual, for example whale meat and canned snoek fish from South Africa, were not rationed. Despite this, they did not prove popular. In 1950, 4,000 tonnes of whale meat went unsold on Tyneside.[2][53][page needed]
When sweets were taken off ration in April 1949 (but sugar was still rationed), there was, understandably, a rush on sweetshops, and rationing had to be reintroduced in August, remaining until 1953.[8]: 164 At the time, this was presented as necessary to feed people in European areas under British control, whose economies had been devastated by the fighting.[2] This was partly true, but with many British men still mobilised in the armed forces, an austere economic climate, a centrally-planned economy under the post-war Labour government and the curtailment of American assistance (in particular, the closure of the Combined Food Board in 1946), resources were not available to expand food production and food imports. Frequent strikes by some workers, most critically dock workers, made things worse.[2]
A common ration book fraud was the ration books of the dead being kept and used by the living.[23]: 264
Political reaction
In the late 1940s, the Conservative Party used and encouraged growing public anger at rationing, scarcity, controls, austerity and government bureaucracy to rally middle-class supporters and build a political comeback that won the 1951 general election. Their appeal was especially effective to housewives, who faced more difficult shopping conditions after the war than during it.[54]
Timeline
1945
27 May: Bacon ration cut from 4 to 3 ounces (113 to 85 g) per week. Cooking fat ration cut from 2 to 1 ounce (57 to 28 g) per week. Soap ration cut by an eighth, except for babies and young children.[55] The Daily Telegraph predicted that households would be grossly hampered in making food items that included pastry.
1 June: The basic petrol ration for civilians was restored.[23]: 253 [47]
19 July: In order to preserve the egalitarian nature of rationing, gift food parcels from overseas weighing more than 5 lb (2.3 kg) would be deducted from the recipient's ration.
1946
Summer: Continual rain ruined Britain's wheat crop. Bread and flour rationing started.
1947
January–March: Winter of 1946–1947 in the United Kingdom: long hard frost and deep snow. Frost destroyed a huge amount of stored potatoes. Potato rationing started.
Mid-year: A transport and dock strike, which among other effects caused much loss of imported meat left to rot on the docks, until the Army broke the strike. The basic petrol ration was stopped.[23]: 253 [47]
1948
1 June: The Motor Spirit (Regulation) Act 1948 was passed,[56] ordering a red dye to be to put into some petrol, and that red petrol was only allowed to be used in commercial vehicles. A private car driver could lose their driving licence for a year if red petrol was found in their car. A petrol station could be shut down if it sold red petrol to a private car driver.
June: The basic petrol ration was restored, but only allowed about 90 miles per month.[47]
Bread came off ration.
1949
May 1949: Clothes rationing ended. According to one author,[23]: 273 this was because attempts to enforce it were defeated by continual massive illegality (black market, unofficial trade in loose clothing coupons (many forged), bulk thefts of unissued clothes ration books).
June, July and August 1949: The basic petrol ration was temporarily increased to allow about 180 miles per month.[47]
1950
23 February 1950: 1950 general election fought largely on the issue of rationing. The Conservative Party campaigned on a manifesto of ending rationing as quickly as possible.[2] The Labour Party argued for the continuation of rationing indefinitely. Labour was returned, but with its majority cut to 5 seats.
March 1950: The Ministry of Fuel and Power announced that the petrol ration would again be doubled for the months of June, July and August.[47]
4 April 1950: Price controls on fish ended.[57]
April 1950: The Ministry of Fuel and Power announced that the petrol ration would be doubled for 12 months from 1 June.[47]
26 May 1950: Petrol rationing ended.[58]
1951
25 October 1951: 1951 United Kingdom general election. The Conservatives came back into power.
1953
4 February 1953: Confectionery (sweets and chocolate) rationing ended.[59][60][61]
September 1953: Sugar rationing ended.
A Conservative Party poster celebrating the end of food rationing
1954
4 July 1954: Meat and all other food rationing ended in Britain.[62]
Although rationing formally ended in 1954, cheese production was affected for decades afterwards. During rationing, most milk in Britain was used to make one kind of cheese, nicknamed Government Cheddar (not to be confused with the government cheese issued by the US welfare system).[63] This wiped out nearly all other cheese production in the country, and some indigenous varieties of cheese almost disappeared.[63]
Later government controls on milk prices through the Milk Marketing Board continued to discourage production of other varieties of cheese until well into the 1980s,[64] and it was only in the mid-1990s, following the effective abolition of the MMB, that the revival of the British cheese industry began in earnest.
1958
Coal rationing ended in July.[65]
Suez Crisis 1956–1957
During the Suez Crisis, petrol rationing was briefly reintroduced and ran from 17 December 1956[66] until 14 May 1957.[67] Advertising of petrol on the recently introduced ITV was banned for a period.
Oil crises of 1973 and 1979
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Petrol coupons were issued for a short time as preparation for the possibility of petrol rationing during the 1973 oil crisis.[68] The rationing never came about, in large part because increasing North Sea oil production allowed the UK to offset much of the lost imports. By the time of the 1979 energy crisis, the United Kingdom had become a net exporter of oil, so on that occasion the government did not even have to consider petrol rationing.
See also
British cuisine
List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom
Ration stamp
Reichsnährstand
Spiv
Utility clothing
Utility furniture
Woolton pie
Gull eggs § British Isles
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morningadvertiser.co.uk (12 February 2019). "How the pub survived the World Wars". morningadvertiser.co.uk. Archived from the original on 15 May 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
Nicol, Patricia (2010). Sucking Eggs. London: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780099521129.
Keesing's Contemporary Archives. Vol. IV–V. June 1943. p. 5,805.
"British food control". Army News. Darwin, Australia: Trove. 14 May 1942. Archived from the original on 16 June 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
Keesing's Contemporary Archives. Vol. IV. June 1942. p. 5,224.
Creaton, Heather J. (1998). "5. Fair Shares: Rationing and Shortages". Sources for the History of London 1939–45: Rationing. British Records Association. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-0-900222-12-2. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
Home Front Handbook, p. 78.
Dawes, Laura (24 September 2013). "Fighting fit: how dietitians tested if Britain would be starved into defeat". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
"Wartime rationing helped the British get healthier than they had ever been". Medical News Today. 21 June 2004. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
Home Front Handbook, pp. 46–47.
UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
Courtney, Tina (April 1992). "Veggies at war". The Vegetarian. Vegetarian Society. Archived from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
Home Front Handbook, p. 46.
"Rationed Foodstuffs". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). Vol. 374. UK Parliament: House of Commons. 30 September 1941. col. 473–5W. Retrieved 31 January 2016. Archived 10 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine
Home Front Handbook, p. 47.
"8 Facts about Clothes Rationing in Britain During the Second World War". Imperial War Museums. Archived from the original on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
Shrimpton, Jayne (2014). Fashion in the 1940s (1st ed.). Oxford: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. pp. 19–21. ISBN 978-0-74781-353-8.
"How Clothes Rationing Affected Fashion In The Second World War". Imperial War Museums. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
Howell, Geraldine (2013). Wartime Fashion: From Haute Couture to Homemade, 1939–1945 (2nd ed.). London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-8578-5071-3.
Summers, Julie (2015). Fashion on the Ration: Style in the Second World War (1st ed.). London: Profile Books LTD. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-78125-326-7.
"8 Facts about Clothes Rationing in Britain During the Second World War". Imperial War Museums. n.d. Archived from the original on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
Home Front Handbook, pp. 47–48.
Clouting, Laura (11 January 2018). "10 Top Tips for Winning at Make Do and Mend". Imperial War Museum. Archived from the original on 23 May 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
"Make Do and Mend – 1943". British Library. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
Home Front Handbook, p. 48.
"The World of Motoring – The End of Rationing". The Motor. London: Temple Press Ltd: 564. 7 June 1950.
Home Front Handbook, pp. 50–51.
Orwell, George (20 October 1944). "As I Please". Tribune. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
"Creative solutions to shortages in and after World War Two". Join me in the 1900s: a social history of everyday life. Archived from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.[self-published source]
Mackay, Robert (2002). Half the Battle: Civilian Morale in Britain during the Second World War. Manchester University Press. pp. 112–113. ISBN 0-7190-5893-7.
Webley, Nicholas (2003). A Taste of Wartime Britain. Thorogood. p. 36. ISBN 1-85418-213-7.
Patten, Marguerite (2005). Feeding the Nation. Hamlyn. ISBN 978-0-600-61472-2.
Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, "Rationing, austerity and the Conservative party recovery after 1945", Historical Journal (1994) 37#1 pp. 173–197
The Daily Telegraph 23 May 1945, reprinted on p. 34 of Daily Telegraph Saturday 23 May 2015
Mills, T. O. (1949). "22 Police Journal 1949 Motor Spirit (Regulation) Act, 1948, The". Police Journal. 22: 280. doi:10.1177/0032258X4902200407. S2CID 152130437. Archived from the original on 12 July 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
"Fish (Revocation of Controls) Order". UK Parliamentary Archives. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
"1950: UK drivers cheer end of fuel rations". BBC News. 26 May 1950. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
"Ration and price control of chocolates and sweets ends as from to-day, the Food Minister told the House of Commons this afternoon." Sweets are now off-ration. Aberdeen, Scotland: Evening Express. 4 February 1953. P. 1, col. 5.
"Immediately after the surprise announcement yesterday by the Minister of Food that sweets rationing "will end today", an Evening News reporter went out to buy himself half-pound box of chocolates." Sweets. All you want, and no bother. Shields Daily News. Thursday, 5 February 1953. Page 4, col. 4.
From Our Political Correspondent : "Answering questions by Sir Ian Fraser (C. Morecambe and Lonsdale) and Mr Kenneth Thompson (C. Walton) the Minister of Food announced that the rationing and price control of chocolate and sugar confectionary ends to-day." Sweets off the ration. Liverpool, England. Liverpool Echo. Wednesday, 04 February 1953. P. 6.
"1954: Housewives celebrate end of rationing". BBC. 4 July 1954. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
"Government Cheddar Cheese". CooksInfo.com. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
Potter, Mich (9 October 2007). "Cool Britannia rules the whey". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on 12 December 2020. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
"End of coal rationing announced". www.information-britain.co.uk. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
"Motorists rationed to 200 miles a month". Birmingham Gazette. 21 November 1956. p. 1. Retrieved 30 November 2021 – via British Newspaper Archive.
"1957: Cheers as petrol rationing ended". BBC News. London: BBC. 14 May 1957. Archived from the original on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
"Motor fuel ration books 1973". The memory box project. Wessex Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 25 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
Sources
Home Front Handbook. Imperial War Museum (Ministry of Information). 2005 [1945]. ISBN 1-904897-11-8.
Further reading
Beckett, Ian F.W. The Home Front 1914–1918: How Britain Survived the Great War (2006).
Braybon, Gail; Summerfield, Penny (1987). Out of the Cage: Women's Experiences in Two World Wars. London: Pandora Press. ISBN 978-0-415-75245-9.
Hammond, R.J. Food and agriculture in Britain, 1939–45: Aspects of wartime control (Food, agriculture, and World War II) (Stanford U.P. 1954); summary of his three volume official history entitled Food (1951–53)
Knight, Katherine (2007). Spuds, Spam and Eating for Victory: Rationing in the Second World War. Stroud: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-5946-2.
Sitwell, William (2016). Eggs or Anarchy? The Remarkable Story of the Man Tasked with the Impossible: To Feed a Nation at War. London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4711-5105-7.
Smith, Daniel (2011). The Spade as Mighty as the Sword: The Story of World War Two's Dig for Victory Campaign. Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-84513-617-8.
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina (1994). "Rationing, austerity and the Conservative party recovery after 1945", Historical Journal (1994) 37#1 pp. 173–197 in JSTOR
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina (2000). Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls & Consumption, 1939–1955 (first ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820453-4.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rationing in the United Kingdom.
History in Focus: War – Rationing in Second World War London World War Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Information about clothes rationing
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Elinor Fettiplace (Receipt Book, 1604)Gervase Markham (The English Huswife, 1615)Robert May (The Accomplisht Cook, 1660)Hannah Woolley (The Queen-like Closet or Rich Cabinet 1670)John Evelyn (Acetaria: A Discourse of Sallets 1699)Kenelm Digby (The Closet Opened 1699)
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Mary Kettilby (A Collection of Above Three Hundred Receipts in Cookery, Physick and Surgery 1714)Mary Eales (Mrs Mary Eales's Receipts 1718)John Nott (The Cooks and Confectioners Dictionary, 1723)Eliza Smith (The Compleat Housewife 1727)Hannah Glasse (The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy 1747)Ann Cook (Professed Cookery, 1754)Martha Bradley (The British Housewife 1758)Primitive Cookery (1767)Elizabeth Raffald (The Experienced English Housekeeper 1769)Richard Briggs (The English Art of Cookery 1788)William Augustus Henderson (The Housekeeper's Instructor 1791)
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19th century
Exemplars
Maria Rundell (A New System of Domestic Cookery 1806)Martha Brotherton (Vegetable Cookery 1812)Eliza Acton (Modern Cookery for Private Families 1845)Charles Elmé Francatelli (The Modern Cook 1846)Isabella Beeton (Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management 1861)
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20th century
Exemplars
Florence PettyElizabeth David (A Book of Mediterranean Food 1950)Dorothy Hartley (Food in England 1954)Constance SpryFanny CradockMarguerite PattenJane GrigsonDelia SmithRick SteinNigel SlaterKeith FloydMarco Pierre WhiteNigella LawsonJamie OliverFergus Henderson (The Whole Beast 1999)Gordon RamsayGary RhodesMary Berry
Dishes
Bakewell tartBeef WellingtonCarrot cakeChicken tikka masalaCoronation chickenCrumbleKnickerbocker gloryPloughman's lunchSalad creamSticky toffee puddingSteak Diane
21st century
Exemplars
Heston Blumenthal (The Fat Duck)Lizzie CollinghamHugh Fearnley-Whittingstall (River Cottage)Rachel KhooMichel Roux Jr. (Le Gavroche)Antony Worrall ThompsonClarissa Dickson Wright (A History of English Food 2011)
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Coronation quichePlatinum Pudding
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List of English dishesList of English cheesesList of savoury puddingsList of sweet puddingsRationing in the United Kingdom
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Categories: Food politicsPublic policy in the United KingdomAusterity in the United Kingdom (1939–1954)United Kingdom home front during World War II
Minister of Food
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Minister of Food Control (1916–1921) and the Minister of Food (1939–1958) were British government ministerial posts separated from that of the Minister of Agriculture. In the Great War the Ministry sponsored a network of canteens known as National Kitchens. In the Second World War a major task of the Ministry was to oversee rationing in the United Kingdom arising out of World War II. The Minister was assisted by a Parliamentary Secretary. The Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Food and Animal Welfare (2018–present; vacant since 2019) was appointed at the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs to ensure the continued supply of sufficient food during the Brexit process.[1][2]
The ministry's work was transferred in 1921 to the Board of Trade which had a small Food Department between the wars. This became its Food (Defence Plans) Department in 1937 and was then constituted as the Ministry of Food on the outbreak of war in 1939.[3]
Jamie's Ministry of Food was a 2008 UK TV programme featuring celebrity chef Jamie Oliver that aimed to recreate the successes of the Ministry of Food in encouraging healthy eating.
Women packing bottles of cod liver oil into crates stamped with the words "Min. of Food Charged 10 shillings"
Second World War
See also: Rationing in the United Kingdom and Feeding Britain in World War II
In April 1940 Lord Woolton, a prominent businessman, was appointed Minister of Food by Neville Chamberlain, one of a number of ministerial appointments from outside politics. Woolton retained this position until 1943. He supervised 50,000 employees and over a thousand local offices where people could obtain ration cards. His ministry had a virtual monopoly of all food sold in Britain, whether imported or local. His mission was to guarantee adequate nutrition for everyone. With food supplies cut sharply because of enemy action and the needs of the services, rationing was essential. Woolton and his advisors had one scheme in mind but economists convinced them to try point rationing. Everyone would have a certain number of points a month that they could allocate any way they wanted. They tried an experiment and it worked very well. Indeed, food rationing was a major success story in Britain's war.[4]
In the dark days of late June 1940, with a German invasion threatened, Woolton reassured the public that emergency food stocks were in place that would last "for weeks and weeks" even if the shipping could not get through. He said "iron rations" were stored for use only in great emergency. Other rations were stored in the outskirts of cities liable to German bombing.[5] When the Blitz began in late summer 1940 he was ready with more than 200 feeding stations in London and other cities under attack.[6]
Woolton was faced with the task of overseeing rationing due to wartime shortages. He took the view that it was insufficient to merely impose restrictions but that a programme of advertising to support it was also required. He warned that meat and cheese, as well as bacon and eggs, were in very short supply and would remain that way. Calling for a simpler diet, he noted that there was plenty of bread, potatoes, vegetable oils, fats and milk.[7] He asked the mathematician Martin Roseveare to design the ration books.[8]
In 1940 Woolton set up Advice Centres throughout the country, with cookery demonstrations and recipe leaflets[9] showing how to make the best use of rations. As imported wheat became scarce, the cartoon character 'Potato Pete' encouraged people to eat more potatoes.
By January 1941 the usual overseas food supply had fallen to half what it had been. However, by 1942 ample food supplies were arriving through Lend Lease from the U.S. and a similar Canadian programme. Lend Lease was a gift and there was no charge. Most food was now rationed. Worried about children, Lord Woolton made sure that by 1942 Britain was providing 650,000 children with free meals at schools; about 3,500,000 children received milk at school, in addition to priority supplies at home. The bad news was that his "national loaf" of mushy grey wholemeal bread replaced the ordinary white variety, to the distaste of most housewives.[10][11] Children were sad to learn that supplies of sweets were reduced to save shipping space on sugar and chocolate.[12]
Woolton kept food prices down; eggs and other items were subsidised. He promoted recipes that worked well with the rationing system, most famously the meatless "Woolton pie" which consisted of carrots, parsnips, potatoes and turnips in oatmeal, with a pastry or potato crust and served with brown gravy. Woolton's business skills made the Ministry of Food's difficult job a success and he earned a strong personal popularity despite the shortages.[13]
Post-war efforts
In the postwar years, the Ministry of Food expanded its efforts to promote public health through the Welfare Foods Scheme. Originally developed during the war to maintain nutrition among vulnerable groups, the program provided items such as cod liver oil, concentrated orange juice, and vitamin tablets to pregnant women, nursing mothers, and young children. These supplements were distributed through health clinics and local food offices as part of a broader national effort to prevent childhood illnesses such as rickets. The bottles of concentrated orange juice became a recognizable symbol of the growing welfare state in Britain, combining public health goals with the continuing legacy of wartime food policy. [14]
List of ministers
Food control (1916–1921)
Minister of Food Control Name Portrait Term of office Political party
Hudson Kearley, 1st Baron Devonport 10 December 1916 19 June 1917 Liberal
David Alfred Thomas, 1st Baron Rhondda 19 June 1917 3 July 1918 Liberal
J. R. Clynes 9 July 1918 10 January 1919 Labour
George Roberts 10 January 1919 19 March 1920 Labour
Charles McCurdy 19 March 1920 31 March 1921 Liberal
Responsibilities transferred to the Board of Trade 1921–1939.
Food (1939–1958)
Minister of Food Name Portrait Term of office Political party
W. S. Morrison 4 September 1939 3 April 1940 Conservative
Frederick Marquis, 1st Baron Woolton 3 April 1940 11 November 1943 Independent
Colonel J. J. Llewellin 11 November 1943 26 July 1945 Conservative
Sir Ben Smith 3 August 1945 26 May 1946 Labour
John Strachey 27 May 1946 28 February 1950 Labour
Maurice Webb
28 February 1950 26 October 1951 Labour
Major Gwilym Lloyd George 31 October 1951 18 October 1954 Liberal & Conservative
Derick Heathcoat-Amory 18 October 1954 6 January 1958 Conservative
Heathcoat-Amory jointly held the separate posts of Minister of Agriculture & Fisheries and Minister of Food 1954–55, pending their merger in 1955 when he assumed the post of Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.
Food and animal welfare (2018–present)
Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Food and Animal Welfare Name Portrait Term of office Political party
David Rutley 3 September 2018 27 July 2019 Conservative
Vacant since 2019.
See also
Rural Pie Scheme (1942)
References
Butler, Sarah (26 September 2018). "UK appoints food supplies minister amid fears of no-deal Brexit". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
"Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Food and Animal Welfare - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk.
The National Archives, class BT60
Angus Calder, The People's War: Britain 1939-45 (1969) pp. 380-87 excerpt and text search Archived 2007-12-06 at the Wayback Machine
Keesing's Contemporary Archives Volume III-IV, (June, 1940) p. 4117
Keesing's Contemporary Archives Volume III-IV, (September, 1940) p. 4260
Keesing's Contemporary Archives, Volume IV, (February, 1941) p. 4474
"Inventor of Britain's Wartime Ration Book Dies". AP NEWS. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
Norman, Jill (2007). Eating for Victory. Michael O'Mara Books. ISBN 978-1-84317-264-2.
Lacey, Richard W. (1994). Hard to Swallow: A Brief History of Food. Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–9. ISBN 9780521440011.
Calder, People's War (1969); pp. 276-77
Keesing's Contemporary Archives, Volume IV, (March, 1942) p. 5080
Longmate, Norman (2010). How We Lived Then: A History of Everyday Life During the Second World War. Random House. p. 152. ISBN 9781409046431.
Durbach, Nadja (July 2018). "One British Thing: A Bottle of Welfare Orange Juice, c. 1961–1971". Journal of British Studies. 57 (3): 564–567. doi:10.1017/jbr.2018.84. ISSN 0021-9371.
Further reading
Fearnley-Whittingstall, Jane (2010). The Ministry of Food: Thrifty Wartime Ways to Feed Your Family Today. London: Hodder HB. ISBN 978-1-4447-0035-0.
Foreman, Susan (1989). "Appendix A". Loaves and Fishes: an illustrated history of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1889-1989. London: HMSO. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-11-242823-7. OCLC 20525761.
Hammond, R. J. Food, Volume 1: The Growth of Policy (London: HMSO, 1951); Food, Volume 2: Studies in Administration and Control (1956); Food, Volume 3: Studies in Administration and Control (1962) official war history
Hammond, R. J. Food and Agriculture in Britain, 1939-45: Aspects of wartime control (Food, agriculture, and World War II) (1954)
Rankin, H. F. (1922) Imbucase: the Story of the B. C. I. C. of the Ministry of Food. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Press (B.C.I.C.=Butter and Cheese Imports Committee)
Sitwell, William (2016). Eggs or Anarchy? The Remarkable Story of the Man Tasked with the Impossible: To Feed a Nation at War. London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4711-5105-7.
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina. Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls & Consumption, 1939-1955 (2000) 286 p. online
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sorry to interrupt, but our fundraiser won't last long.
This Friday, we ask you to join the 2% of readers who give. If everyone reading this right now gave just £2.75, we'd hit our goal quickly. £2.75 is all we ask.
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We're sorry we've asked you a few times recently, but it's Friday, 14 November, and this fundraiser matters. We're nearing today's goal, but time's running out. If just 2% of our most loyal readers gave £2.75 today, we'd reach our goal quickly. Most people donate because Wikipedia is the internet we were promised: useful, free to use, and filled with reliable, human-created knowledge. If you agree, consider giving £25 or even just £2.75.
Various foods
This is a categorically organized list of foods. Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body.[1] It is produced either by plants, animals, or fungi, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.
Note: due to the high number of foods in existence, this article is limited to being organized categorically, based upon the main subcategories within the Foods category page, along with information about main categorical topics and list article links. An example is Vanilla Ice cream.
List of foods
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (January 2025)
Asparagus
Cookie
Ginger snap
Afghan biscuits
Apple
Alfajor
Almond biscuit
Chocolate chip cookie
Lebkuchen
Aachener Printen
Cornish fairing
Speculaas
Springerle
Kruidnoten
Acıbadem kurabiyesi
Sesame snaps
Cracker
Hardtack
Abernethy
Bread
bagel
Garlic bread
Buttered bread
Bialy
Croissant
Baguette
Toast
Flatbread
Arepa
Pupusa
Roti Canai
Burrito
Crunchwrap Supreme
Cabbage
Cabbage roll
Sauerkraut
Cake
Banana cake
Cheesecake
Chocolate cake
Carrot cake
Strawberry cake
Ice-cream cake
Vanilla cake
Red velvet cake
Cupcake
Fudge cake
Birthday cake
Cake pop
List of cakes
Charcuterie
Chocolate
White chocolate
Dark chocolate
Milk chocolate
Ruby chocolate
Pancake
Poundcake
Chopped liver
Cheese
Gruyère cheese
Mozzarella
Brie
Feta
Blue cheese
Parmesan
Parmigiano Reggiano
Cheddar cheese
Processed cheese
Tasty cheese
Cheese stick
Cheesestrings
Congee
Donuts
Jam
Sprinkles
Donut holes
Chocolate
Krispy Kreme
Tim Hortons
McDonald's
Dumplings
Fun guo
Har gow
Momo (food)
Pierogi
Wonton
Fruits
Apricot
Apple
Banana
Cantaloupe
Durian
Date fruit
Dragonfruit
Orange (fruit)
Cherry
Kiwi
Watermelon
Avocado
Apricot
Peach
Pear
Pineapple
Mango
Strawberry
Blueberry
Raspberry
Blackberry
Cranberry
French fries
Poutine
Gravy
Grains
Cereal
Corn
Popcorn
Rice
Ice cream
Chocolate
Vanilla
Pineapple
Cookies and cream
Mint chocolate
Rocky Road
Boysenberry
Biscuit Tortoni
Blue Moon
Queso
Hokey Pokey
Moose Tracks
Mango
Tiger Tail
Strawberry
Superman
Spumoni
Pistachio
Moon mist
Neapolitan
Kebab
Mashed potatoes
Meats
Beef
Wagyu
Steak
Lomo Saltado
Pork
Bacon
Ham
Poultry
Buffalo wing
Chicken balls
Chicken nuggets
Chicken steak
Chicken feet
Roast chicken
Ribs
Sausage
Currywurst
Seafood
Fish
Salmon
Shrimp and prawn
Shark
Eggs
Scrambled egg
Sunny side up
Omelette
Boiled egg
Tea egg
Century egg
Iron egg
Smoked egg
Soy egg
Chinese red eggs
Poached egg
Milk
Almond milk
Soy milk
Cow milk
Goat milk
Onion rings
Pasta
Lasagna
Linguini
Ravioli
Carbonara
Bolognese
Spaghetti
Spaghetti and meatballs
Mac and Cheese
Pancit canton
Fettuccine
Pudding
Pie
Shepherds pie
Apple pie
Cream pie
Pumpkin pie
Key lime pie
Peach pie
Blueberry pie
Pizza
Pepperoni
Hawaiian
Margherita
Rolls
Croquette
Egg roll
Steak roll
Spring roll
Lumpia
Burrito
Sandwiches
Vegetable sandwich
Grilled Cheese
Panini
Hamburgers
Cheeseburgers
Bacon cheeseburger
Whopper
Chicken burger
Hot dog
Chili dog
Peanut butter and jam sandwich
Submarine sandwich
Soup
Chowder
Clam Chowder
Corn chowder
Sinigang
Minestrone
Tomato soup
Sushi
California roll
Stew
Taco
Tamale
Taquitos
Quesadillas
Turnover
Jamaican patty
Waffle
Pancake
Nacho
Basic foods
Baked goods
Main article: List of baked goods
Baked goods are cooked by baking, a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat.
Breads
Various leavened breads
Breads – Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of humanity's oldest foods, having been of importance since the dawn of agriculture.
List of breads
List of American breads
List of brand name breads
List of bread rolls
List of buns
List of British breads
List of Indian breads
List of Pakistani breads
List of quick breads
List of sweet breads
List of bread dishes
List of fried dough foods
List of doughnut varieties
Cereals
Cereals – True cereals are the seeds of certain species of grasses. Maize, wheat, and rice account for about half of the calories consumed by people every year. Grains can be ground into flour for bread, cake, noodles, and other food products. They can also be boiled or steamed, either whole or ground, and eaten as is. Many cereals are present or past staple foods, providing a large fraction of the calories in the places that they are eaten.
List of maize dishes
List of porridges
Dairy products
Dairy products – Dairy products are food produced from the milk of mammals. Dairy products are usually high energy-yielding food products. A production plant for the processing of milk is called a dairy or a dairy factory. Apart from breastfed infants, the human consumption of dairy products is sourced primarily from the milk of cows, yet goats, sheep, yaks, horses, camels, and other mammals are other sources of dairy products consumed by humans.
List of dairy products
List of butter dishes
List of cheeses
List of American cheeses
List of Armenian cheeses
List of brined cheeses
List of British cheeses
List of French cheeses
List of Irish cheeses
List of Italian cheeses
List of Norwegian cheeses
List of Polish cheeses
List of cheese dishes
Various cheeses
Various cheeses
A bottle of milk
A bottle of milk
Yogurt
Yogurt
Edible plants
Further information: Plant-based diet
Edible plants
Fruit – In common language usage, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, bananas, and lemons. On the other hand, the botanical sense of "fruit" includes many structures that are not commonly called "fruits", such as bean pods, corn kernels, wheat grains, and tomatoes.[2][3]
List of culinary fruits
List of citrus fruits
List of coconut dishes
List of fruit dishes
List of apple dishes
List of avocado dishes
List of banana dishes
List of cherry dishes
List of grape dishes
List of lemon dishes and beverages
List of melon dishes
List of plum dishes
List of squash and pumpkin dishes
List of edible plants and mushrooms of southeast Alaska
List of plants used in South Asian cuisine
Edible tubers – Not all tubers are edible. Those that are include potatoes, sweet potatoes and yams. Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients. They are used by plants to survive the winter or dry months, to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing season, and as a means of asexual reproduction.[4] There are both stem and root tubers.
List of root vegetables
List of potato dishes
List of sweet potato cultivars
Vegetables – In culinary terms, a vegetable is an edible plant or its part, intended for cooking or eating raw.[5]
List of vegetables
List of leaf vegetables
List of vegetable dishes
List of cabbage dishes
List of carrot dishes
List of eggplant dishes
List of garlic dishes
List of onion dishes
Several culinary fruits
Several culinary fruits
Edible tubers – a variety of potato cultivars
Edible tubers – a variety of potato cultivars
Vegetables
Vegetables
Edible fungi
Commercial cultivated Japanese edible mushroom species
Edible fungi – Edible fungi are the fleshy and edible fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi (fungi which bear fruiting structures that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye). They can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) where they may be picked by hand.[6] Edibility may be defined by criteria that include absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma.[7][8]
Edible mushroom
List of mushroom dishes
Edible nuts and seeds
Raw mixed nuts
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Pictured is a mixture of brown, white, and red indica rice, (also containing wild rice).
Edible nuts and seeds – Nut is a fruit composed of a hard shell and a seed, where the hard-shelled fruit does not open to release the seed (indehiscent). In a culinary context, a wide variety of dried seeds are often called nuts, but in a botanical context, only ones that include the indehiscent fruit are considered true nuts. The translation of "nut" in certain languages frequently requires paraphrases, as the word is ambiguous.
Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds,[9] especially from cereals, legumes and nuts. Seeds also provide most cooking oils, many beverages and spices and some important food additives.
List of culinary nuts
List of edible seeds
List of sesame seed dishes
Legumes
A selection of various legumes
Edible legumes
Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for their food grain seed (e.g., beans and lentils, or generally pulse), for livestock forage and silage, and as soil-enhancing green manure. Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules. Well-known legumes include: alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, and tamarind.
List of legume dishes
List of tofu dishes
Meat
Meat – Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food.[10]: 1 Humans are omnivorous,[11][12][13] and have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times.[13] The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle, and eventually their use in meat production on an industrial scale. Today, humans consume not only chicken, mutton, pork and beef but also meats of camel, horse, dog, cat, alligator, crocodile, turtle, dolphin, emu, ostrich, duck, deer, zebra, water buffalo, whale, snake, frog, guinea pig, rabbit, squirrel, porcupine, and monkey.
List of meat dishes
List of beef dishes
List of chicken dishes
List of domesticated meat animals
List of hamburgers
List of hams
List of kebabs
List of pork dishes
List of bacon dishes
List of sausages
List of hot dogs
List of sausage dishes
The standing rib roast, a cut of beef
The standing rib roast, a cut of beef
Various meats
Various meats
Chorizo sausage
Chorizo sausage
Eggs
Eggs – Eggs are laid by female animals of many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, and have been eaten by humans for thousands of years.[14] Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen (egg white), and vitellus (egg yolk), contained within various thin membranes. Popular choices for egg consumption are chicken, duck, quail, roe, and caviar, but the egg most often consumed by humans is the chicken egg, by a wide margin.
List of egg dishes
List of egg topics
Fried eggs
Fried eggs
A batch of tea eggs with shell still on soaking in a brew of spices and tea, an example of edible eggs
A batch of tea eggs with shell still on soaking in a brew of spices and tea, an example of edible eggs
Rice
List of rice cakes
List of rice dishes
Seafood
Seafood – Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Seafood prominently includes fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms.
Fish – Fish is consumed as a food by many species, including humans. The word "fish" refers to both the animal and to the food prepared from it. In culinary and fishery contexts, the term fish also includes shellfish, such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. Fish has been an important source of protein for humans throughout recorded history.
List of fish dishes
List of cod dishes
List of herring dishes
List of raw fish dishes
List of seafood dishes
Edible seaweed
Seafood includes any form of food taken from the sea
Seafood includes any form of food taken from the sea
Tanks of seafood at a Cantonese restaurant
Tanks of seafood at a Cantonese restaurant
The preparation of smoked salmon
The preparation of smoked salmon
Prepared lobster
Prepared lobster
Staple foods
Staple foods – Staple food, sometimes called food staple or staple, is a food that is eaten routinely and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet in a given population, supplying a large fraction of the needs for energy-rich materials and generally a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as well. Most people live on a diet based on just a small number of staples.[15] Most staple plant foods are derived either from cereals such as wheat, barley, rye, maize, or rice, or starchy tubers or root vegetables such as potatoes, yams, taro, and cassava.[16] Other staple foods include pulses (dried legumes), sago (derived from the pith of the sago palm tree), and fruits such as breadfruit and plantains.[17] Of more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, only a few hundred contribute significantly to human food supplies. Just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the world's food energy intake (exclusive of meat), with rice, maize and wheat comprising two-thirds of human food consumption. These three alone are the staples of over 4 billion people.[18]
Staple foods
Rice
Rice
Maize
Maize
Barley grains
Barley grains
Prepared foods
For a more comprehensive list, see Lists of prepared foods.
Appetizers
Zakuski are a type of hors d'oeuvre
Appetizers (also known as hors d'oeuvre) – Items served before the main courses of a meal, typically smaller than main dishes, and often meant to be eaten by hand (with minimal use of silverware). Hors d'oeuvre may be served at the dinner table as a part of the meal, or they may be served before seating. Stationary hors d'oeuvre served at the table may be referred to as "table hors d' oeuvre". Passed hors d'oeuvre may be referred to as "butler-style" or "butlered" hors d'oeuvre.
List of hors d'oeuvre
Condiments
Three condiment relishes here accompany Nshima (top right)
Condiments – Condiment is something such as a sauce, that is added to some foods to impart a particular flavor, enhance its flavor,[19] or in some cultures, to complement the dish. The term originally described pickled or preserved foods, but has shifted meaning over time.[20]
List of condiments
List of brand name condiments
List of syrups
Confectionery
Confectionery – Confectionery, or the making of confections, are food items that are rich in sugar. Confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, bakers' confections and sugar confections.[21] Bakers' confectionery includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, and similar baked goods. Sugar confectionery includes sweets, candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum, sweetmeats, pastillage, and other confections that are made primarily of sugar. Confections include sweet foods, sweetmeats, digestive aids that are sweet, elaborate creations, and something amusing and frivolous.[22]
List of confectionery brands
List of chocolate bar brands
List of bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers
Candy
Candy
Chocolate
Chocolate
Convenience foods
Dehydrated shredded potatoes are a convenience food
Convenience foods – convenience food, also known as processed food, is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption.
Desserts
Desserts – Dessert is a typically sweet course that may conclude a meal. The course usually consists of sweet foods, but may include other items.
List of desserts
Dessert-related lists (category)
An assortment of desserts
An assortment of desserts
An assortment of petit fours
An assortment of petit fours
Neapolitan ice cream
Neapolitan ice cream
Dips, pastes and spreads
Guacamole is an avocado-based dip
Dips – Dip or dipping sauce is a common condiment for many types of food. Dips are used to add flavor or texture to a food.
List of common dips
Paste – Food paste is a semi-liquid colloidal suspension, emulsion, or aggregation used in food preparation or eaten directly as a spread.[23] Pastes are often highly spicy or aromatic.
List of food pastes
Spread – Foods that are literally spread, generally with a knife, onto bread, crackers, or other food products. Spreads are added to food to provide flavor and texture.
List of spreads
Dried foods
Dried foods – Drying is a method of food preservation that works by removing water from the food, which inhibits the growth of bacteria and has been practiced worldwide since ancient times to preserve food. Where or when dehydration as a food preservation technique was invented has been lost to time, however the earliest known practice of food drying is 12,000 BCE by inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions.[24]
List of dried foods
Flattened fish being dried in the sun
Flattened fish being dried in the sun
Various dried foods in a dried foods store
Various dried foods in a dried foods store
Dumplings
Dumplings – Dumplings are cooked balls of dough. They are based on flour, potatoes or bread, and may include meat, fish, vegetables, or sweets. They may be cooked by boiling, steaming, simmering, frying, or baking. Dumplings are stuffed with a diverse variety of fillings.
List of dumplings
Dumplings in a basket, served with a dipping sauce
Dumplings in a basket, served with a dipping sauce
Fast food
Fast food – Fast food is the term given to food that is prepared and served very quickly, first popularized in the 1950s in the United States. While any meal with low preparation time can be considered fast food, typically the term refers to food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and served to the customer in a packaged form for take-out/take-away. Fast food restaurants are traditionally separated by their ability to serve food via a drive-through. The term "fast food" was recognized in a dictionary by Merriam–Webster in 1951.
Fast food cheeseburgers
Fast food cheeseburgers
Lamb shish kebab
Lamb shish kebab
Fermented foods
Lassi is a fermented food prepared from yogurt, water and mango pulp
Fermented foods (Fermentation in food processing) – Fermentation in food processing is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desirable. The science of fermentation is also known as zymology or zymurgy.
List of fermented foods
Halal food
Halal food – Islamic jurisprudence vis-à-vis Islamic dietary laws specifies which foods are halal ("lawful") and which are ḥarām ("unlawful"). This is derived from commandments found in the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, as well as the Hadith and Sunnah, libraries cataloging things Muhammad is reported to have said and done.
List of halal and kosher fish
Kosher food
Kosher food – Kosher foods are those that conform to the regulations of kashrut (Jewish dietary law). Food that may be consumed according to halakha (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, meaning "fit" (in this context, fit for consumption). Food that is not in accordance with Jewish law is called treif or treyf, derived from Hebrew trāfáh. Some of the restrictions include not being able to eat seafood. One also can not mix meat with dairy. Pork also can not be eaten. But there are those in the Jewish community that do not actually keep Kosher. [25][26]
Noodles
Noodles – The noodle is a type of staple food[27] made from some type of unleavened dough which is rolled flat and cut into one of a variety of shapes. While long, thin strips may be the most common, many varieties of noodles are cut into waves, helices, tubes, strings, or shells, or folded over, or cut into other shapes. Noodles are usually cooked in boiling water, sometimes with cooking oil or salt added. They are often pan-fried or deep-fried. Noodles are often served with an accompanying sauce or in a soup. Noodles can be refrigerated for short-term storage, or dried and stored for future use.
List of pasta
List of pasta dishes
List of noodles
List of noodle dishes
Various types of noodles commonly found in Southeast Asia
Various types of noodles commonly found in Southeast Asia
Pies
An apple pie
Pies – Pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients.
List of pies, tarts and flans
Salads
Salads – Salad is a ready-to-eat dish often containing leafy vegetables, usually served chilled or at a moderate temperature and often served with a sauce or dressing. Salads may also contain ingredients such as fruit, grain, meat, seafood and sweets. Though many salads use raw ingredients, some use cooked ingredients.
List of salads
Sandwiches
Sandwiches – Sandwich is a food item consisting of one or more types of food placed on or between slices of bread, or more generally any dish wherein two or more pieces of bread serve as a container or wrapper for some other food.[28][29][30] The sandwich was originally a portable food item or finger food which began its popularity primarily in the Western World, but is now found in various versions in numerous countries worldwide.
List of sandwiches
A salad platter
A salad platter
A sandwich prepared with chicken salad
A sandwich prepared with chicken salad
Sauces
Sauce poivrade being prepared, one of many types of sauces
Sauces – In cooking, a sauce is liquid, cream or semi-solid food served on or used in preparing other foods. Sauces are not normally consumed by themselves; they add flavor, moisture, and visual appeal to another dish. Sauce is a French word descended from the Latin salsa, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest sauce recorded is garum, the fish sauce used by the Ancient Greeks.
List of sauces
Snack foods
"Gorp" ("good old raisins and peanuts") is a classic trail mix and snack food
Snack food – Snack food is a portion of food often smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals.[31] Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged and processed foods and items made from fresh ingredients at home.
List of snack foods
Soups
Matzo ball soup
Soups – Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth.
List of soups
Stews
Stews – Stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables (such as carrots, potatoes, beans, peppers and tomatoes, etc.), meat, especially tougher meats suitable for slow-cooking, such as beef. Poultry, sausages, and seafood are also used.
List of stews
Lamb and lentil stew
Lamb and lentil stew
See also
Portals
Portal:Food
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Food Drink Beer
Portal:Wine
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Wine Liquor Coffee
Portal:Agriculture and agronomy
Agriculture and agronomy
Bushfood
Cuisine
Dishes by main ingredient (category)
Edible flower
Food products (category)
Foods by cooking technique (category)
Food products (category)
List of ancient dishes
List of antioxidants in food
List of drinks
List of culinary herbs and spices
List of food origins
Lists of foods (category)
List of foods with religious symbolism
List of organic food topics
List of street foods
Natural food
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Outline of food preparation
Specialty foods
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Whole food
References
"food | Definition & Nutrition". Encyclopedia Britannica. 5 August 2024.
Schlegel, Rolf H J (2003). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding and Related Subjects. Haworth Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-56022-950-0.
Mauseth, James D. (2003). Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones and Bartlett. pp. 271–272. ISBN 0-7637-2134-4.
Rooting cuttings of tropical trees, London: Commonwealth Science Council, 1993, p. 11, ISBN 978-0-85092-394-0
Vainio, Harri & Bianchini, Franca (2003). Fruits And Vegetables. IARC. p. 2. ISBN 92-832-3008-6.
Chang, Shu-Ting; Phillip G. Miles (1989). Mushrooms: cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect, and Environmental Impact. CRC Press. pp. 4–6. ISBN 0-8493-1043-1.
Arora D (1986). Mushrooms demystified. Ten Speed Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-89815-169-4.
Mattila P, Suonpää K, Piironen V (2000). "Functional properties of edible mushrooms". Nutrition. 16 (7–8): 694–96. doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(00)00341-5. PMID 10906601.
Sabelli, P.A.; Larkins, B.A. (2009). "The Development of Endosperm in Grasses". Plant Physiology. 149 (1): 14–26. doi:10.1104/pp.108.129437. PMC 2613697. PMID 19126691.
Lawrie, R. A.; Ledward, D. A. (2006). Lawrie's meat science (7th ed.). Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-84569-159-2.
Robert E. C. Wildman; Denis M. Medeiros (2000). Advanced Human Nutrition. CRC Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-8493-8566-0. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
Robert Mari Womack (2010). The Anthropology of Health and Healing. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-7591-1044-1. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
McArdle, John. "Humans are Omnivores". Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
Kenneth F. Kiple, A Movable Feast: Ten Millennia of Food Globalization (2007), p. 22.
United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization: Agriculture and Consumer Protection. "Dimensions of Need – Staples: What do people eat?". Retrieved 2010-10-15.
"Staple foods – Root and Tuber Crops". Archived from the original on Feb 1, 2009.
"Staple Foods II – Fruits". Archived from the original on Feb 1, 2009.
"Dimensions of Need: An atlas of food and agriculture". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1995.
"Merriam-Webster: Definition of condiment". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved October 23, 2011.
Smith, Andrew F. (2007). The Oxford companion to American food and drink. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–146. ISBN 978-0-19-530796-2. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
International Food Information Service, ed. (2009). Dictionary of Food Science and Technology (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Wiley–Blackwell. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-4051-8740-4.
Confection | Define Confection at Dictionary.com. Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved on 2014-02-16.
Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2012). The Culinarian: A Kitchen Desk Reference. New York: Wiley. p. 409. ISBN 978-1-118-11061-4.
"Historical Origins of Food Preservation". Accessed June 2011.
"Daily life: Food laws - Practices in Judaism - GCSE Religious Studies Revision - Eduqas".
"What is kosher? Definition, examples, diet, and more". 23 December 2020.
"4,000-Year-Old Noodles Found in China". History. Oct 12, 2005. Archived from the original on February 18, 2021.
Abelson, Jenn. "Arguments spread thick". The Boston Globe, 10 November 2006. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
"sandwich". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
Foundations of Restaurant Management & Culinary Arts Level Two. Pearson. 2011. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-13-138022-6.
"Definition of Snack at Dictionary.com". Retrieved 2011-03-13.
External links
FoodData Central. United States Department of Agriculture's National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to food.
Look up food in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for food.
Media related to Eggs at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Fruit at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Meats at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Edible mushrooms at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Edible wild plants at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Seafood at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Vegetables at Wikimedia Commons
Food. Release 27. Agricultural Research Service,
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World War II Major Events Timeline
Discover the pivotal events between 1918 and 1942 that shaped the first half of World War II. This timeline traces that path from the bitter conclusion of the First World War through the ascendancy of the Nazi party to America’s entry into the global conflict. Witness many of these events in World on Fire Seasons 1 and 2.
November 11, 1918
World War I Ends
Britain, France, the US, and other allies defeat Germany, bringing an end to World War I, billed as “the war to end all wars.”
January 30, 1933
Hitler Appointed German Leader
Adolf Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany and later assumes dictatorial powers. German rearmament takes off.
September 1, 1939
World War II Begins
Germany invades Poland, inciting Poland’s allies Britain and France to declare war on Germany.
September 17, 1939
Soviet Union Invades Poland
Working in concert with Hitler, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin orders the invasion of Poland, securing a share of Polish territory.
September 27, 1939
Warsaw Captured
Warsaw surrenders to German troops. Poland holds out for another 9 days before capitulating.
December 13, 1939
UK Wins War’s First Sea Battle
British cruisers defeat a German pocket battleship at the Battle of the River Plate, the first major naval engagement of World War II.
April 8, 1940
Norway Invaded
Germany invades Norway, ending a 6-month period of limited land operations called the “Phony War.”
May 10, 1940
Churchill Becomes Prime Minister
Winston Churchill replaces Neville Chamberlain as British Prime Minister. The same day, Germany invades Belgium.
May 26-June 4, 1940
Miracle of Dunkirk
The trapped British army evacuates to England from Dunkirk, France, surviving to fight another day.
June 14, 1940
Paris Falls to Nazis
Paris falls to German forces. France capitulates 11 days later.
July 10-October 31, 1940
Britain Fights for Its Life
The Battle of Britain pits German bombers against British fighters in a thwarted German prelude to invasion.
September 7, 1940 – May 11, 1941
The Blitz
German bombers target major cities in Great Britain and Northern Ireland, killing over 40,000 civilians and leveling over a million homes.
December 9, 1940 – February 9, 1941
Operation Compass
Armies of Great Britain and its empire defeat Italian forces for control of Egypt and eastern Libya.
February 12, 1941
The Desert Fox Arrives
German General Erwin Rommel takes command of the Afrika Korps, seeking to drive the British out of North Africa.
June 22, 1941
Hitler Launches Operation Barbarossa
Opening what will become the bloodiest front of World War II, massive German armies invade the Soviet Union.
December 7, 1941
U.S. Plunged into War
Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, starting war with the US. Sensing weakness, Hitler declares war on America 4 days later.
January 20, 1942
Wannsee Conference
High-ranking Nazi officials approve a systematic plan for the mass extermination of Jews across Europe—the “Final Solution.”
June 4–7, 1942
Battle of Midway
Japanese expansion in the Pacific is thwarted near Midway Island, as US dive bombers sink four Japanese aircraft carriers.
November 8, 1942
America Joins the War in North Africa
US troops land in French North Africa as part of Operation Torch, designed to support British forces in the region.