Xmas Cheer
Cold War Newsletter
This is replica of a one sheet newsletter. It has the title "Xmas Cheer" Published by Holmes & Narver. It has their logo in the corner - Engineers HN Construction
It has the words "Christmas Island" probably where it was published and the date June 19 1962 it is Volume 1 Number 27
The main stories headline is "Red Flag will Fly over US says Nikita" Below is a story from Bucharest where Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev states "the red flag will fly over United States and the American People will hoist it themselves"
Below is a second story with the healdine "High Altitude Test Scheduled Tonight" where in Honolulu a Joint US Task Force 8 will make another attempt to fire its controversial high altitude nuclear test about 200 miles above Johnston Island
The back of the newsletter has a lighter feel with sports stories about baseball and a Major League Table and Softball
It also has information on a Bingo Game tonight as well as the Menu in the Mess Hall
In the corner is a humous cartoon of a sexy woman in a negligee night dress
The Xmas Cheer News Letter from Christmas Island. It has a Cold War theme from 1962. Published by artists Holmes & Narver this Americana-themed publication features stories related to the Cold War. This nostalgic piece captures the essence of a bygone era, offering a unique glimpse into the cultural and political landscape of the time. Perfect for collectors of vintage Americana, this newsletter is a delightful addition to any collection.
Sorry about the poor quality photos. They dont do the newsletter justice it looks a lot better in real life
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The Cold War
After World War II, the United States and its allies, and the Soviet Union and its satellite states began a decades-long struggle for supremacy known as the Cold War. Soldiers of the Soviet Union and the United States did not do battle directly during the Cold War. But the two superpowers continually antagonized each other through political maneuvering, military coalitions, espionage, propaganda, arms buildups, economic aid, and proxy wars between other nations.
From Allies to Adversaries
The Soviet Union and the United States had fought as allies against Nazi Germany during World War II. But the alliance began to crumble as soon as the war in Europe ended in May 1945. Tensions were apparent in July during the Potsdam Conference, where the victorious Allies negotiated the joint occupation of Germany.
The Soviet Union was determined to have a buffer zone between its borders and Western Europe. It set up pro-communist regimes in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, and eventually in East Germany.
As the Soviets tightened their grip on Eastern Europe, the United States embarked on a policy of containment to prevent the spread of Soviet and communist influence in Western European nations such as France, Italy, and Greece.
During the 1940s, the United States reversed its traditional reluctance to become involved in European affairs. The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged aid to governments threatened by communist subversion. The Marshall Plan (1947) provided billions of dollars in economic assistance to eliminate the political instability that could open the way for communist takeovers of democratically elected governments.
France, England, and the United States administered sectors of the city of Berlin, deep inside communist East Germany. When the Soviets cut off all road and rail traffic to the city in 1948, the United States and Great Britain responded with a massive airlift that supplied the besieged city for 231 days until the blockade was lifted. In 1949, the United States joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the first mutual security and military alliance in American history. The establishment of NATO also spurred the Soviet Union to create an alliance with the communist governments of Eastern Europe that was formalized in 1955 by the Warsaw Pact.
The Worldwide Cold War
map of East and West Germany
In Europe, the dividing line between East and West remained essentially frozen during the next decades. But conflict spread to Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The struggle to overthrow colonial regimes frequently became entangled in Cold War tensions, and the superpowers competed to influence anti-colonial movements.
In 1949, the communists triumphed in the Chinese civil war, and the world's most populous nation joined the Soviet Union as a Cold War adversary. In 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, and the United Nations and the United States sent troops and military aid. Communist China intervened to support North Korea, and bloody campaigns stretched on for three years until a truce was signed in 1953.
In 1954, the colonial French regime fell in Vietnam.
The United States supported a military government in South Vietnam and worked to prevent free elections that might have unified the country under the control of communist North Vietnam. In response to the threat, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was formed in 1955 to prevent communist expansion, and President Eisenhower sent some 700 military personnel as well as military and economic aid to the government of South Vietnam. The effort was foundering when John F. Kennedy took office.
Closer to home, the Cuban resistance movement led by Fidel Castro deposed the pro-American military dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Castro's Cuba quickly became militarily and economically dependent on the Soviet Union. The United States' main rival in the Cold War had established a foothold just ninety miles off the coast of Florida.
Kennedy and the Cold War
Cold War rhetoric dominated the 1960 presidential campaign. Senator John F. Kennedy and Vice President Richard M. Nixon both pledged to strengthen American military forces and promised a tough stance against the Soviet Union and international communism. Kennedy warned of the Soviet's growing arsenal of intercontinental ballistic missiles and pledged to revitalize American nuclear forces. He also criticized the Eisenhower administration for permitting the establishment of a pro-Soviet government in Cuba.
John F. Kennedy was the first American president born in the 20th century. The Cold War and the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union were vital international issues throughout his political career. His inaugural address stressed the contest between the free world and the communist world, and he pledged that the American people would "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty."
The Bay of Pigs
Before his inauguration, JFK was briefed on a plan drafted during the Eisenhower administration to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of their homeland. The plan anticipated that support from the Cuban people and perhaps even elements of the Cuban military would lead to the overthrow of Castro and the establishment of a non-communist government friendly to the United States.
Kennedy approved the operation and some 1,400 exiles landed at Cuba's Bay of Pigs on April 17. The entire force was either killed or captured, and Kennedy took full responsibility for the failure of the operation.
The Arms Race
In June 1961, Kennedy met with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in Vienna, Austria. (See a memorandum below outlining the main points of conversation between President Kennedy and Khrushchev at their first lunch meeting.) Kennedy was surprised by Khrushchev's combative tone during the summit. At one point, Khrushchev threatened to cut off Allied access to Berlin. The Soviet leader pointed out the Lenin Peace Medals he was wearing, and Kennedy answered, "I hope you keep them." Just two months later, Khrushchev ordered the construction of the Berlin Wall to stop the flood of East Germans into West Germany.
As a result of these threatening developments, Kennedy ordered substantial increases in American intercontinental ballistic missile forces. He also added five new army divisions and increased the nation's air power and military reserves. The Soviets meanwhile resumed nuclear testing and President Kennedy responded by reluctantly reactivating American tests in early 1962.
The Cuban Missile Crisis
In the summer of 1962, Khrushchev reached a secret agreement with the Cuban government to supply nuclear missiles capable of protecting the island against another US-sponsored invasion. In mid-October, American spy planes photographed the missile sites under construction. Kennedy responded by placing a naval blockade, which he referred to as a "quarantine," around Cuba. He also demanded the removal of the missiles and the destruction of the sites. Recognizing that the crisis could easily escalate into nuclear war, Khrushchev finally agreed to remove the missiles in return for an American pledge not to reinvade Cuba. But the end of Cuban Missile Crisis did little to ease the tensions of the Cold War. The Soviet leader decided to commit whatever resources were required for upgrading the Soviet nuclear strike force. His decision led to a major escalation of the nuclear arms race.
In June 1963, President Kennedy spoke at the American University commencement in Washington, DC. He urged Americans to critically reexamine Cold War stereotypes and myths and called for a strategy of peace that would make the world safe for diversity. In the final months of the Kennedy presidency Cold War tensions seemed to soften as the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was negotiated and signed. In addition, Washington and Moscow established a direct line of communication known as the "Hotline" to help reduce the possibility of war by miscalculation.
Vietnam
In May 1961, JFK had authorized sending 500 Special Forces troops and military advisers to assist the government of South Vietnam. They joined 700 Americans already sent by the Eisenhower administration. In February 1962, the president sent an additional 12,000 military advisers to support the South Vietnamese army. By early November 1963, the number of US military advisers had reached 16,000.
Even as the military commitment in Vietnam grew, JFK told an interviewer, "In the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it—the people of Vietnam against the Communists. . . . But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake. . . . [The United States] made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate—we may not like it—in the defense of Asia." In the final weeks of his life, JFK wrestled with the need to decide the future of the United States commitment in Vietnam—and very likely had not made a final decision before his death.
Christmas
Nativity scene depicted using Christmas lights
Also called Noël, Nativity, Koleda, Xmas, Boro Din
Observed by Christians, Alawites,[1][2] many other communities[3][4]
Type Christian, cultural, international
Significance Commemoration of the nativity of Jesus
Celebrations Gift-giving, family and other social gatherings, symbolic decoration, feasting
Observances Church services
Date
December 25 (Western Christianity and part of the Eastern churches)
January 6 (Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Evangelical Church)
January 7 (O.S. December 25) (most Oriental Orthodox and part of the Eastern Orthodox churches)
January 19 (O.S. January 6) (Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem)
Related to Christmastide, Christmas Eve, Advent, Annunciation, Epiphany, Baptism of the Lord, Nativity Fast, Nativity of Christ, Old Christmas, Yule, Saint Stephen's Day, Boxing Day
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Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25[a] as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A liturgical feast central to Christianity, Christmas preparation begins on the First Sunday of Advent and it is followed by Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries, is observed religiously by a majority of Christians, as well as celebrated culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the annual holiday season.
The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies. When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word.
There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus's birth. In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire. It is nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, celebrating that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity is more important than knowing Jesus's exact birth date.
The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular holiday traditions include gift-giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and carolling; watching Christmas films; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, poinsettias, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, Christmas has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world.
Etymology
See also: Christ (title)
The English word Christmas is a shortened form of 'Christ's Mass'.[5] The word is recorded as Crīstesmæsse in 1038 and Cristes-messe in 1131.[6] Crīst (genitive Crīstes) is from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos, 'Christ'), a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ, 'Messiah'), meaning 'anointed';[7][8] and mæsse is from the Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist.[9]
The form Christenmas was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic.[10] The term derives from Middle English Cristenmasse, meaning 'Christian mass'.[11] Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas, particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in the Greek Χριστός (Christ), although some style guides discourage its use.[12] This abbreviation has a precedent in Middle English Χρ̄es masse (where Χρ̄ is another abbreviation of the Greek word).[11]
Other names
The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as "midwinter",[13][14] or, more rarely, as Nātiuiteð (from the Latin nātīvitās).[13][15] Nativity, meaning 'birth', is from the Latin nātīvitās.[16] In Old English, Gēola ('Yule') referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas.[17] 'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in "The First Nowell") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning 'birth (day)'.[18]
Koleda is the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmas-related rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times.[19] During the late Qing dynasty, the Shanghai News referred to Christmas by a variety of terms. In 1872, it initially called Christmas "Jesus' birthday" (Chinese: 耶穌誕日; pinyin: yēsū dànrì), but from 1873 to 1881 it used terms such as "Western countries' Winter Solstice" (Chinese: 西國冬至; pinyin: xīguó dōngzhì) and "Western peoples' Winter Solstice" (Chinese: 西人冬節; pinyin: xīrén dōngjiē), before finally settling on "Foreign Winter Solstice" (Chinese: 外國冬至; pinyin: wàiguó dōngzhì) from 1882 onwards. This term was gradually replaced by the now standard term "Festival of the birth of the Holy One" (Chinese: 聖誕節; pinyin: shèngdàn jiē) during the early twentieth century.[20]
Nativity
Main article: Nativity of Jesus
Adoration of the Shepherds by Dutch painter Matthias Stomer, 1632
The gospels of Luke and Matthew describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem to the Virgin Mary. In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in a manger.[21] Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus.[22]
History
Early and medieval era
Nativity of Christ, medieval illustration from the Hortus deliciarum of Herrad of Landsberg, 12th century
In the 2nd century, the "earliest church records" indicate that "Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord", an "observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers"; although "they did not agree upon a set date".[23] The earliest document to place Jesus's birthday on December 25 is the Chronograph of 354 (also called the Calendar of Filocalus), which also names it as the birthday of Sol Invictus (the 'Invincible Sun').[24][25][26][27]
Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336.[25] This is consistent with the assertion that the date was formally set by Pope Julius I, bishop of Rome from 337 to 352.[28] Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writers Irenaeus and Tertullian,[6] the early Church Fathers John Chrysostom, Augustine of Hippo, and Jerome attested to December 25 as the date of Christmas toward the end of the fourth century.[23] December 25 was the traditional date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire,[29] where most Christians lived, and the Roman festival Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus) had been held on this date since 274 AD.[30]
In the East, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6.[31][32] This holiday was not primarily about Christ's birth, but rather his baptism.[33] Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival of Orthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced in Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century,[32] probably in 388, and in Alexandria in the following century.[34] The Georgian Iadgari demonstrates that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by the sixth century.[35]
The Nativity, from a 14th-century missal, a liturgical book containing texts and music necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year
In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.[36] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[36] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.[36]
In 567, the Council of Tours put in place the season of Christmastide, proclaiming "the twelve days from Christmas to Epiphany as a sacred and festive season, and established the duty of Advent fasting in preparation for the feast".[37] This was done in order to solve the "administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east".[38]
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800.[39] King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.[40]
The coronation of Charlemagne on Christmas of 800 helped promote the popularity of the holiday.
By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten.[36] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[36] "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day (a custom at the royal court), and there was special Christmas ale.[36]
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens.[41] Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.[41] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.[42] It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[43]
17th and 18th centuries
Martin Luther played a role in the emergence of the Christmas tree and in the tradition of presents on Christmas Eve.[44][45]
Following the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas.[46] In 1629, the Anglican poet John Milton penned On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide.[47] Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, Chico, states that Martin Luther "inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America".[48] Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts.[49]
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast".[50] In contrast, the established Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party".[51] The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity.[42] Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[50][52] Oliver Cromwell even ordered his troops to confiscate any special meals made on Christmas Day.[53]
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[50] Football, among the sports the Puritans banned on a Sunday, was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[54] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.[55] During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.[56]
The Examination and Tryal of Old Father Christmas, (1686), published after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England
Christmas was restored as a legal holiday in England with the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared void, with Christmas again freely celebrated in England.[56] Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebrations. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant.[57] The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days".[58] Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday since time immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated a bank holiday in Scotland.[59] The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.[60]
As in England, Puritans in Colonial America staunchly opposed the observation of Christmas.[61] The Pilgrims of New England pointedly spent their first December 25 in the New World working normally.[61] Puritans such as Cotton Mather condemned Christmas both because scripture did not mention its observance and because Christmas celebrations of the day often involved boisterous behavior.[62][63] Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England.[64] Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659.[61] The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governor Edmund Andros, but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[65]
At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, predominantly Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes.[66] Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.[67]
With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was renamed the "equality cake" under anticlerical government policies.[68]
19th century
Ebenezer Scrooge and the Ghost of Christmas Present, from Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol, 1843
In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services gradually spread with the rise of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor,[69] along with Washington Irving, Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, and Santa Claus (for Irving),[69] or Father Christmas (for Dickens).[70] An indication this increased recognition of Christmas was slow, however, is seen in the fact that "in twenty of the years between 1790 and 1835, The Times did not mention Christmas at all."[71]
In the early-19th century, writers imagined Tudor-period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1835, Thomas Hervey and Robert Seymour published The Christmas Book in which they introduced what has been called a "national Christmas narrative."[72] In his book, Hervey asserted: "the revels of merry England are fast subsiding into silence, and her many customs wearing gradually away."[73] In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol, which helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.[74][75] Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.[69]
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation".[76] Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy",[77] Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[78] It has been said that Dickens' breakthrough with A Christmas Carol was his "ingenious pairing of seasonal fiction and seasonal [book] sales."[79] A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story.[80] This coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.[81]
19th-century lithograph showing the Christkindlesmarkt (Christmas market) in Nuremberg, Germany
The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with the phrase "Bah! Humbug!" becoming emblematic of a dismissive attitude of the festive spirit.[82] In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole.[83] The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", popularized in Dickens's A Christmas Carol.
The Queen's Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, published in the Illustrated London News, 1848
In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century by the German-born Queen Charlotte. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it.[84] After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.[85] An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia in 1850.[86][87] By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.[86]
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,[88] and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.[42]
A Norwegian Christmas, 1846 painting by Adolph Tidemand
In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas).[89] The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.[90] This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England, Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.[91]
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so".[92] In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."[92]
The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.[92] By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday.[93] In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card".[94] On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday.[95]
20th and 21st centuries
The Christmas Visit. Postcard, c. 1910
During the First World War and particularly in 1914,[96] a series of informal truces took place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at a distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies.[97] These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory.[98] They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas.[99]
Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public.[100] During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.[101] At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a protest against the holiday.[102] Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year.[103] It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.[104]
Mount Ingino Christmas Tree in Gubbio, Italy, the tallest Christmas tree in the world, 2014[105]
In 1991, the Gubbio Christmas Tree, in Italy, 650 metres (2,130 ft) high and decorated with over 700 lights, entered the Guinness Book of Records as the tallest Christmas tree in the world.[105] European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany, "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies".[106]
As Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditional Christian cultures, several Muslim-majority countries began to ban the observance of Christmas, claiming it undermined Islam.[107] In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled in Bethlehem, the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus. Palestinian leaders of various Christian denominations cited the ongoing Israel–Gaza war in their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations.[108]
Observance and traditions
Further information: Christmas traditions and Observance of Christmas by country
Christmas at the Annunciation Church in Nazareth, 1965. Photo by Dan Hadani.
Christmas at the Annunciation Church in Nazareth, 1965
Dark brown – countries that do not recognize Christmas on December 25 or January 7 as a public holiday. Light brown – countries that do not recognize Christmas as a public holiday, but the holiday is given observance
Many Christians attend church services to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ[109]
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is in Turkey, being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival.[citation needed]
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in a Christian context.[110][111] The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival-like state in the Middle Ages,[36] to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation.[74][75] The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as the Puritans and Jehovah's Witnesses (who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical.[50][61][112] Celtic winter herbs such as mistletoe and ivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries.[113]
The pre-Christian Germanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas.[114] In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat.[115][114] Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the Wild Hunt), the long-bearded god Odin is referred to as "the Yule one" and "Yule father" in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as "Yule beings".[116] On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice.[117]
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as the Koleda,[118] which shares parallels with the Christmas carol.
Church attendance
Christmas Day (inclusive of its vigil, Christmas Eve), is a Festival in the Lutheran Churches, a solemnity in the Roman Catholic Church, and a Principal Feast of the Anglican Communion. Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost.[119] As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Day church service plays an important part in the recognition of the Christmas season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of the highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time.[120] In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5 million people at Christmas services in 2015.[121]
Decorations
Main article: Christmas decoration
Further information: Hanging of the greens
Neapolitan presepio at the Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh
Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe.[122] Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful Kraków szopka in Poland,[123] which imitate Kraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian presepi (Neapolitan [it], Genoese [it] and Bolognese [it]),[124][125][126][127] or the Provençal crèches in southern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called santons.[128] In certain parts of the world, notably Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches.[129][130][131] The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children.[132] In countries where a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom.[133]
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold.[134][135] Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the Magi, symbolizing royalty.[136]
The official White House Christmas tree for 1962, displayed in the Entrance Hall and presented by John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie
The Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Bucer.[137][138] In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees".[139][140] When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem, a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897.[141][142] Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus.[143] Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, is symbolic of Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent the Light of the World—Jesus—born in Bethlehem.[144][145] Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected.[146][147] The Christmas tree is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship;[148] according to eighth-century biographer Æddi Stephanus, Saint Boniface (634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an ax to an oak tree dedicated to Thor and pointed out a fir tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to heaven and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the Trinity.[149] The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835[150] and represents an importation from the German language.[148][151][152]
An advent wreath as designed by Johann Hinrich Wichern. On Christmas, the Christ Candle in the center of the wreath is traditionally lit in many church services.
Since the 16th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of the Star of Bethlehem; in that country it is known in Spanish as the Flower of the Holy Night.[153][154] Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example, the legend of Baldr). It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed.
Christmas lights in Verona, Italy
Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. The wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.[155]
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played by speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places.[156] It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured to wrap gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night.
Nativity play
Main article: Nativity play
St. Francis at Greccio by Giotto, 1295
The tradition of the Nativity scene comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in the early Christian Roman catacomb of Saint Valentine.[157] It dates to about AD 380.[158] Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit in Sant'Ambrogio, Milan.
For the Christian celebration of Christmas, the viewing of the Nativity play is one of the oldest Christmastime traditions, with the first reenactment of the Nativity of Jesus taking place in A.D. 1223 in the Italian town of Greccio.[159] In that year, Francis of Assisi assembled a Nativity scene outside of his church in Italy and children sang Christmas carols celebrating the birth of Jesus.[159]
Each year, this grew larger, and people travelled from afar to see Francis' depiction of the Nativity of Jesus that came to feature drama and music.[159] Nativity plays eventually spread throughout all of Europe, where they remained popular. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day church services often came to feature Nativity plays, as did schools and theatres.[159] In France, Germany, Mexico, and Spain, Nativity plays are often reenacted outdoors in the streets.[159]
Christmas lights
Many families have been decorating their houses with lights and in modern times, inflatables, to create a festive environment.[160] The origin of Christmas lights began with candles on Christmas trees in 16th-century Germany, where they symbolized Christ as the light of the world.[161]
Music and carols
Main article: Christmas music
Christmas carolers in Jersey
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth-century Rome. Latin hymns such as "Veni redemptor gentium", written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poet Prudentius (died 413) is still sung in some churches today.[162] In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional Christmas carol. Christmas carols in English appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay who lists twenty five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of 'wassailers', who went from house to house.[163]
Child singers in Bucharest, 1841
The songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie", "Good King Wenceslas", and "In dulci jubilo" can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. "Adeste Fideles" (O Come all ye faithful) appeared in its current form in the mid-18th century.
The singing of carols increased in popularity after the Protestant Reformation in the Lutheran areas of Europe, as the Reformer Martin Luther wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship, in addition to spearheading the practice of caroling outside the Mass.[164] The 18th-century English reformer Charles Wesley, a founder of Methodism, understood the importance of music to Christian worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing".[165]
Hark! The Herald Angels Sing
Duration: 1 minute and 52 seconds.1:52
Performed by the U.S. Army Band Chorus
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Christmas seasonal songs of a secular nature emerged in the late 18th century. The Welsh melody for "Deck the Halls" dates from 1794, with the lyrics added by Scottish musician Thomas Oliphant in 1862, and the American "Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. Other popular carols include "The First Noel", "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", "The Holly and the Ivy", "I Saw Three Ships", "In the Bleak Midwinter", "Joy to the World", "Once in Royal David's City" and "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks".[166] In the 19th and 20th centuries, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holiday songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.
One of the most ubiquitous festive songs is "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", which originates from the West Country of England in the 1930s.[167] Radio has covered Christmas music from variety shows from the 1940s and 1950s, as well as modern-day stations that exclusively play Christmas music from late November through December 25.[168] Hollywood movies have featured new Christmas music, such as "White Christmas" in Holiday Inn and Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.[168] Traditional carols have also been included in Hollywood films, such as "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" in It's a Wonderful Life (1946), and "Silent Night" in A Christmas Story.[168]
Traditional cuisine
See also: Christmas food
Christmas dinner setting
Panettone
A special Christmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions have special meals for Christmas Eve, such as Sicily, where 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread, and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such as Christmas pudding, mince pies, fruit cake and Yule log cake.[169][170]
In Poland and Scandinavia, fish is often used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden, it is common with a special variety of smörgåsbord, where ham, meatballs, and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular worldwide. The Maltese traditionally serve Imbuljuta tal-Qastan,[171] a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, after Midnight Mass and throughout the Christmas season. Slovenes prepare the traditional Christmas bread potica, bûche de Noël in France, panettone in Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes. Panettone, an Italian type of sweet bread and fruitcake, originally from Milan, Italy, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as in South America, Eritrea,[172] Australia and North America.[173]
The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the German stollen, marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods. Eggnog is a sweetened dairy-based beverage traditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture). Spirits such as brandy, rum, or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
Cards
Main article: Christmas card
A 1907 Christmas card with Santa and some of his reindeer
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843.[174] The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging E-cards.[175][176]
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative, with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem, or a white dove, which can represent both the Holy Spirit and Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depict Christmas traditions, figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes, and the wildlife of the northern winter.[177]
Commemorative stamps
Main article: Christmas stamp
A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide.[178] Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists.[179] These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale sometime between early October and early December and are printed in considerable quantities.
Christmas seals
Main article: Christmas seals
Christmas seals were first issued to raise funding to fight and bring awareness to tuberculosis. The first Christmas seal was issued in Denmark in 1904, and since then other countries have issued their own Christmas seals.[180]
Gift giving
Main article: Christmas gift
Christmas gifts under a Christmas tree
The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with Saint Nicholas,[181] and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the Magi.[182][183] The practice of gift giving in the Roman celebration of Saturnalia may have influenced Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of the Incarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life".[184] However, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor Aurelian placed the alternate festival on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.[185]
Gift-bearing figures
Main article: List of Christmas and winter gift-bringers by country
A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these are Father Christmas, also known as Santa Claus (derived from the Dutch for Saint Nicholas), Père Noël, and the Weihnachtsmann; Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas; the Christkind; Kris Kringle; Joulupukki; tomte/nisse; Babbo Natale; Saint Basil; and Ded Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte (also called nisse) is sometimes depicted as a gnome instead of Santa Claus.
Saint Nicholas, known as Sinterklaas in the Netherlands, is considered by many to be the original Santa Claus.[186]
The best known of these figures today is the red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name 'Santa Claus' can be traced back to the Dutch Sinterklaas ('Saint Nicholas'). Nicholas was a 4th-century Greek bishop of Myra.[187][188] Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.[43]
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, corrupted in English to 'Kris Kringle', and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.[43]
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors including Washington Irving and the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840–1902). Following the American Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town of New Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.[189]
Current tradition in several Latin American countries holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
Christkind, Munich, Germany
In Italy's South Tyrol, Austria, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from Saint Basil on New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast.[190] The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.[191]
Multiple gift-giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Central and North-East areas, the Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common in Greater Poland, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is unique to Upper Silesia, with the Little Star (Gwiazdka) and the Little Angel (Aniołek) being common in the South and the South-East. Grandfather Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland.[192][193] It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver on Saint Nicholas Day on December 6.
Sport
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival with annual indulgences, including sporting.[43] When Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[54] The Orkney Christmas Day Ba' tradition continues.[194] In the former top tier of English football, home and away Christmas Day and Boxing Day double headers were often played guaranteeing football clubs large crowds by allowing many working people their only chance to watch a game.[195] Champions Preston North End faced Aston Villa on Christmas Day 1889[196] and the last December 25 fixture was in 1965 in England, Blackpool beating Blackburn Rovers 4–2.[195] One of the most memorable images of the Christmas truce during World War I was the games of football played between the opposing sides on Christmas Day 1914.[197]
Scandinavia and the Nordics
Main articles: Yule and Christmas in Denmark, Christmas in Norway, and Christmas in Sweden
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In Scandinavia—Denmark, Norway, Sweden—where Lutheranism is dominant, Christmas (jul) is celebrated on 24 December. In Sweden, it is traditional for companies to host a Christmas buffet lunch (julbord or jullunch) for their employees a week before Christmas. To prevent food poisoning during the holiday season, Swedish newspapers annually publish reports and laboratory tests warning the public to avoid leaving cold cuts, mayonnaise, and other perishable foods at room temperature to prevent spoilage. Christmas in Sweden is a time to indulge in festive meals, with roasted ham being the centerpiece of the feast. However, the exact day for enjoying this treat varies across regions, with each area having its own traditions. Another well-established custom in Sweden is tuning in to watch a special Disney television program at precisely 3 p.m. on December 24.
In Norway, the Christmas feast is held on December 24, with each region offering its own special dishes for Christmas dinner. After the meal, "Julenissen" (where "jule" means Christmas and "nissen" refers to a mythical elf in Norwegian folklore) brings gifts to well-behaved children. Following a quiet family gathering on December 25, another grand celebration takes place on Boxing Day, December 26, where children go door-to-door visiting neighbors and receiving treats.
Choice of date
A mosaic dated to around 300 AD in the Tomb of the Julii, an apparently Christian tomb in the Vatican Necropolis. Most scholars believe it depicts Jesus as the sun god Sol / Helios.[198][199]
Theories
Main article: Date of the birth of Jesus § Day of birth
There are several theories as to why December 25 was chosen as the date for Christmas. However, theology professor Susan Roll notes that "no liturgical historian ... goes so far as to deny that it has any sort of relation with the sun, the winter solstice and the popularity of solar worship in the later Roman Empire".[200] The early Church linked Jesus Christ to the Sun and referred to him as the 'Sun of Righteousness'.[201] In the early fifth century, Augustine of Hippo and Maximus of Turin preached that it was fitting to celebrate Christ's birth at the winter solstice, because it marked the point when the hours of daylight begin to grow.[202][203]
The 'history of religions' or 'substitution' theory suggests that the Church chose December 25 as Christ's birthday[204] to appropriate the Roman winter solstice festival dies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus, the 'Invincible Sun'), held on this date since 274 AD; before the earliest evidence of Christmas on that date.[29][30] Professor Gary Forsythe says that the Natalis Solis Invicti followed "the seven-day period of the Saturnalia (December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season since Republican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts".[29] Roll says that "the specific nature of the relation" between Christmas and the Natalis Solis Invicti has not yet been "conclusively proven from extant texts".[200]
The 'calculation theory'[30] suggests that December 25 was calculated as nine months after a date chosen for Jesus's conception: 25 March, the Roman date of the spring equinox, which later became the Feast of the Annunciation.[30][205]
Date according to Julian calendar
Some jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church, including those of Russia, Georgia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Jerusalem, mark feasts using the older Julian calendar. Since Christmas 1899 until Christmas 2099 inclusive, there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modern Gregorian calendar. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.[206]
However, following the Council of Constantinople in 1923,[207] other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions of Constantinople, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, and the Orthodox Church in America, among others, began using the Revised Julian calendar, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar.[208] Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25.
The Armenian Apostolic Church continues the original ancient Eastern Christian practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because since 1923 the Armenian Church in Armenia has used the Gregorian calendar.[209] However, there is also a small Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.[210]
Following the 2022 invasion of its territory by Russia, Ukraine officially moved its Christmas date from January 7 to December 25, to distance itself from the Russian Orthodox Church that had supported Russia's invasion.[211][212] This followed the Orthodox Church of Ukraine formally adopting the Revised Julian calendar for fixed feasts and solemnities.[213]
Table of dates
There are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below.
Church or section Calendar Date Gregorian date Note
Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem Julian calendar January 6 January 19 Correspondence between Julian January 6 and Gregorian January 19 holds until 2100; in the following century the difference will be one day more.
Armenian Apostolic Church, Armenian Evangelical Church Gregorian calendar January 6 January 6
Eastern Orthodox Church jurisdictions, including those of Constantinople, Bulgaria, Ukraine[214] (state holiday, Orthodox and Greek Catholic), Greece, Romania, Moldova (Metropolis of Bessarabia), Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, the Orthodox Church in America.
Also, the Ancient Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, Indian Orthodox Church.
Revised Julian calendar December 25 December 25 Revised Julian calendar was agreed at the 1923 Council of Constantinople.[207]
Although it follows the Julian calendar, the Ancient Church of the East decided on 2010 to celebrate Christmas according to the Gregorian calendar date.
Other Eastern Orthodox: Russia, Georgia, Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), North Macedonia, Belarus, Moldova (Metropolis of Chișinău and All Moldova), Montenegro, Serbia and Jerusalem.
Also, some Byzantine Rite Catholics and Byzantine Rite Lutherans.
Julian calendar December 25 January 7 Correspondence between Julian December 25 and Gregorian January 7 of the following year holds until 2100; from 2101 to 2199 the difference will be one day more.[citation needed]
Coptic Orthodox Church Coptic calendar Koiak 29 or 28 (December 25) January 7 After the Coptic insertion of a leap day in what for the Julian calendar is August (September in Gregorian), Christmas is celebrated on Koiak 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of nine 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation.[citation needed]
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (sole date), Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (sole date), and P'ent'ay (Ethiopian-Eritrean Evangelical) Churches (primary date) Ethiopian calendar Tahsas 29 or 28 (December 25) January 7
Further information: Ethiopian Christmas
After the Ethiopian and Eritrean insertion of a leap day in what for the Julian calendar is August (September in Gregorian), Christmas (also called Liddet or Gena, also Ledet or Genna)[215] is celebrated on Tahsas 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of nine 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation.[216]
Most Protestants (P'ent'ay/Evangelicals) in the diaspora have the option of choosing the Ethiopian calendar (Tahsas 29/January 7) or the Gregorian calendar (December 25) for religious holidays, with this option being used when the corresponding eastern celebration is not a public holiday in the western world (with most diaspora Protestants celebrating both days).[citation needed]
Most Western Christian churches, most Eastern Catholic churches and civil calendars; also the Assyrian Church of the East. Gregorian calendar December 25 December 25 The Assyrian Church of the East adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1964.
Economy
Main article: Economics of Christmas
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world; sales increase dramatically during this time as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the United States, the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October.[217] In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns before Halloween (October 31) and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on.[218][219] A concept devised by retail entrepreneur David Lewis, the first Christmas grotto opened in Lewis's department store in Liverpool, England in 1879.[220] In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season.[221] Figures from the US Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 billion in November 2004 to $31.9 billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6 million to 1.8 million in the two months leading up to Christmas.[222] Industries completely dependent on Christmas include Christmas cards, of which 1.9 billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas trees, of which 20.8 million were cut in the US in 2002.[223] In the UK in 2010, up to £8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.[219]
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Similar legislation was approved in Scotland in 2007. Film studios release many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for the Academy Awards.[224]
One economist's analysis calculates that despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the US alone.[225][226] Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.[227]
Christmas decorations at the Galeries Lafayette department store in Paris, France. The Christmas season is the busiest trading period for retailers.
Christmas decorations at the Galeries Lafayette department store in Paris, France. The Christmas season is the busiest trading period for retailers.
Christmas market in Jena, Germany
Christmas market in Jena, Germany
Each year (most notably 2000) money supply in US banks is increased for Christmas shopping.
Each year (most notably 2000) money supply in US banks is increased for Christmas shopping.
Controversies
Main article: Christmas controversies
Further information: Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union, Kirchenkampf, and Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
A 1931 edition of the Soviet magazine Bezbozhnik, published by the League of Militant Atheists, depicting an Orthodox Christian priest being forbidden to take home a tree for the celebration of Christmastide, which was banned under the Marxist–Leninist doctrine of state atheism[228]
Christmas has been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources, both Christian and non-Christian. Historically, it was prohibited by Puritans during their ascendency in the Commonwealth of England (1647–1660) and in Colonial New England where the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659 on the grounds that Christmas was not mentioned in Scripture and therefore violated the regulative principle of worship.[229][230] The Parliament of Scotland, which was dominated by Presbyterians, passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not become a public holiday in Scotland until 1871.[59][231][232] Today, some conservative Reformed denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America likewise reject the celebration of Christmas based on the regulative principle and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin.[233][234] Celebrating Christmas is banned in the Jehovah's Witnesses, as the Governing Body believes that Christmas is originally pagan and again that it is without basis in Scripture.[235] Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited by atheist states such as the Soviet Union[236] and more recently majority Muslim states such as Somalia, Tajikistan and Brunei.[237]
Some Christians and organizations such as Pat Robertson's American Center for Law and Justice cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas").[238] Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects is being increasingly censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees.[239] In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greeting Merry Christmas with Happy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah.[240] In the U.S., and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as being politically correct.[241][242][243] In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch v. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment.[244] American Muslim scholar Abdul Malik Mujahid has said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it.[245]
The government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism,[246] and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end.[247] In December 2018, officials raided Christian churches prior to Christmastide and coerced them to close; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed.[248][249]
See also
icon Christianity portal
icon Holidays portal
Apollo 8 Genesis reading from lunar orbit, December 24, 1968
Christmas by medium – Christmas represented in different media
Christmas in July – Second Christmas celebration
Christmas Peace – Finnish tradition
Christmas Sunday – Sunday after Christmas
List of Christmas films
List of Christmas novels – Christmas as depicted in literature
Little Christmas – Alternative title for 6 January
Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems#25th of December
Nochebuena – Evening or day before Christmas Day
Notes
Several branches of Eastern Christianity that use the Julian calendar also celebrate on December 25 according to that calendar, which is now January 7 on the Gregorian calendar. Armenian Churches observed the nativity on January 6 even before the Gregorian calendar originated. Most Armenian Christians use the Gregorian calendar, still celebrating Christmas Day on January 6. Some Armenian churches use the Julian calendar, thus celebrating Christmas Day on January 19 on the Gregorian calendar, with January 18 being Christmas Eve. Some regions also celebrate primarily on December 24, rather than December 25.
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Further reading
Bowler, Gerry, The World Encyclopedia of Christmas (October 2004: McClelland & Stewart). ISBN 978-0-7710-1535-9.
Bowler, Gerry, Santa Claus: A Biography (November 2007: McClelland & Stewart). ISBN 978-0-7710-1668-4.
Comfort, David, Just Say Noel: A History of Christmas from the Nativity to the Nineties (November 1995: Fireside). ISBN 978-0-684-80057-8.
Count, Earl W., 4000 Years of Christmas: A Gift from the Ages (November 1997: Ulysses Press). ISBN 978-1-56975-087-2.
Federer, William J., There Really Is a Santa Claus: The History of St. Nicholas & Christmas Holiday Traditions; Archived December 25, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (December 2002: Amerisearch). ISBN 978-0-9653557-4-2.
Kelly, Joseph F., The Origins of Christmas; Archived December 25, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (August 2004: Liturgical Press). ISBN 978-0-8146-2984-0.
Martindale, Cyril (1908). "Christmas" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Miles, Clement A., Christmas Customs and Traditions; Archived December 25, 2022, at the Wayback Machine (1976: Dover Publications). ISBN 978-0-486-23354-3.
Nissenbaum, Stephen, The Battle for Christmas (1996; New York: Vintage Books, 1997). ISBN 0-679-74038-4.
Restad, Penne L. (1995). Christmas in America: A History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509300-1.
Rosenthal, Jim, St. Nicholas: A Closer Look at Christmas (July 2006: Nelson Reference). ISBN 1-4185-0407-6.
Sammons, Peter (May 2006). The Birth of Christ. Glory to Glory Publications (UK). ISBN 978-0-9551790-1-3.
"Christmas" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 293–294.
External links
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Quotations from Wikiquote
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Christmas collection at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History
Christmas: Its Origin and Associations, by William Francis Dawson, 1902, from Project Gutenberg
Christmas: its origin, celebration and significance as related in prose and verse, by Robert Haven Schauffler, 1907
vte
Christmas
Blue ChristmasBoxing DayChildren's DayChristmas EveSaint Nicholas DaySaint Stephen's DaySol InvictusYule
In Christianity
Holy FamilyJesus Christ ChildMaryJosephBiblical Magi Adoration of the MagiAdoration of the ShepherdsAdventAngel GabrielAnnunciationAnnunciation to the shepherdsBethlehemChristmastideEpiphanyHerod the GreatMassacre of the Innocents flight into EgyptNativity FastNativity of Jesus in artin later cultureNativity scene NeapolitanStar of BethlehemTwelfth Night
In folklore
BadaliscCaganerChristkindGrýlaJack FrostKorvatunturiKallikantzarosLegend of the Christmas SpiderMari LwydMiner's figureNisseNorth PoleOld Man WinterPerchtaSanta's workshopTió de NadalTurońVertepWenceslausYule cat
Gift-bringers
Saint Nicholas folkloreSanta ClausBefanaDed MorozFather ChristmasGrandpa IndianJoulupukkiJulemandenNoel BabaOlentzeroPère NoëlSinterklaasOthers
Companions of
Saint Nicholas
BelsnickelElvesKnecht RuprechtKrampusMrs. ClausPère FouettardSack ManSanta Claus' daughterSanta's reindeer Rudolph the Red-Nosed ReindeerSnegurochkaZwarte Piet
Traditions
Advent calendarAdvent candleAdvent wreathBoar's Head FeastCandle archesChalking the doorCardsCarols by CandlelightCavalcade of MagiChristingleChristmas jumperChristmas PeaceCrackersDecorationsDidukhThe Elf on the ShelfFeast of the Seven FishesFlying SantaGiftsGoogle Santa TrackerHampersLas PosadasLettersLightsLord of MisruleMarketsMidnight MassMoravian starMummers' playNine Lessons and CarolsNORAD Tracks SantaNutcrackers dollsOrnamentsParades listPiñatasPoinsettiaPyramidsRäuchermannChristmas sealsSecret SantaSpanbaumSzopkaStampsStockingsTreeTwelve DaysWassailingWindowsYule goatYule log
By country
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Music
Carols listOperasHit singles in the UKHit singles in the USMusic charts (Billboard)Music books Carols for ChoirsThe Oxford Book of CarolsThe New Oxford Book of CarolsPiae Cantiones
Other media
In literature A Christmas CarolFilms Santa Claus in filmChristmas horrorPoetry "Old Santeclaus with Much Delight""A Visit from St. Nicholas""Christmas Day in the Workhouse""Journey of the Magi""Tomten"Christmas television specials United StatesYule LogApollo 8 Genesis reading
In
modern
society
Advent ConspiracyBlack Friday (partying)Black Friday (shopping)Bronner's Christmas WonderlandChristmas and holiday seasonChristmas clubChristmas creepChristmas Day (Trading) Act 2004Christmas jumpersChristmas LecturesChristmasland in New Taipei CityChristmas MountainsChristmas sealsChristmas truceControversiesCyber MondayEconomicsGivingTuesdayGrinchEl GordoJews and ChristmasIn JulyIn AugustNBA gamesNFL gamesPikkujouluSantaConSanta's Candy CastleSanta Claus VillageScroogeSmall Business SaturdaySuper SaturdayVirginia O'Hanlon ("Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus")White ChristmasXmas
Food and
drink
Dinner
JoulupöytäJulbordJulebordKūčiosRéveillonThirteen dessertsTwelve-dish supperWigilia
Sweets
Baked AlaskaCandy caneCakeCookieCozonacFruitcakeGingerbreadKutiaMakówkiMelomakaronoMince piePampushkaPanettonePavlovaPecan piePoppy seed rollPuddingPumpkin pieQurabiyaRed velvet cakeSugar plumStollenSzaloncukorTurrónYule log
Soup
MenudoBorscht
Sauces
Bread sauceCranberry sauceRedcurrant sauce
Beverages
Apple ciderChampurradoEggnogHot chocolateKisselMulled wine Smoking bishopPonche cremaSnowball
Dumplings
HallacaPierogiTamale
Meat and fish
CarpGefilte fishHamPickled herringRoast gooseRomeritosStuffingTourtièreTurkey
Category
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Nativity of Jesus
People
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Christ Child (Jesus)MaryJoseph
Magi
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Others
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Place
Bethlehem
Gifts of the Magi
GoldFrankincenseMyrrh
Narratives
Gospel of Matthew
Matthew 1Matthew 1:18Matthew 1:19Matthew 1:20Matthew 1:21Matthew 1:22Matthew 1:23Matthew 1:24Matthew 1:25Matthew 2:11Adoration of the Magi (In art)
Gospel of Luke
Luke 2Annunciation to the shepherds
Related
DateMangerStar of BethlehemVirgin birth of JesusSaint Joseph's dreamsFlight into Egypt
In culture
In artIn filmBatlejkaChalking the doorChristmas villageSzopkaNativity displays theftNativity playVertep SerbianOthers
Remembrances
AdventChristmasChurch of the NativityNativity Fast
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Jesus
OutlineList of topics
Chronology
of Jesus's life
AnnunciationNativity Virgin birthDate of birthFlight into EgyptInfancy (apocryphal)Christ ChildUnknown yearsBaptismTemptationApostles SelectingMinistry DisciplesSermon on the Mount/Plain BeatitudesPrayers Lord's PrayerParablesMiraclesTransfigurationHomelessnessGreat CommandmentOlivet DiscourseAnointingPassion instrumentsEntry into JerusalemLast Supper Farewell DiscourseAgony in the GardenBetrayalArrestTrialCrucifixion Sayings on the crossInstrument usedTrue CrossBurial TombResurrectionGreat CommissionAscension
New Testament
Gospels MatthewMarkLukeJohnFive Discourses of MatthewGospel harmonyOral gospel traditionsHistorical background of the New TestamentNew Testament places associated with JesusNames and titles of Jesus in the New Testament
Historical Jesus
Quest for the historical JesusHistoricity Sources JosephusTacitusMara bar SerapionGospelsChrist myth theory
Depictions
BibliographyLife of Christ in artLife of Christ MuseumStatuesTransfiguration
Christianity
Christ Christianity1st centuryChristology IncarnationPerson of ChristPre-existence"I am"RelicsSecond ComingSession of ChristSon of GodCosmic Christ
In other faiths
JesuismIn comparative mythologyJudaism In the TalmudIslam AhmadiyyaBaháʼí FaithManichaeism Jesus the SplendourMandaeismMaster Jesus
Family
GenealogiesMary (mother)Joseph (legal father)Holy FamilyPanthera (alleged father)Brothers of JesusHoly KinshipAnne (traditional maternal grandmother)Joachim (traditional maternal grandfather)Heli (paternal grandfather per Luke)Jacob (paternal grandfather per Matthew)Alleged descendantsClopas (traditional uncle)
Related
Language of JesusInteractions with women Mary MagdaleneMary, sister of MarthaChristmasEasterRejection of JesusCriticismMental healthRace and appearanceSexuality and marital statusChurch of the NativityChurch of the Holy SepulchreThe Garden TombShroud of Turin
Category
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Mary, mother of Jesus
Family
Joseph (husband)Jesus (son)Joachim (father)Anne (mother)ElizabethBrothers of Jesus
Life
Tradition: early life
Immaculate ConceptionBirthPresentationMarriage to Joseph Perpetual virginity
In the Bible
Annunciation Virginal motherhoodVisitationNativity of JesusPresentation of JesusFlight into EgyptReturn to NazarethFinding of Jesus in the TempleMiracle at the Wedding at CanaPassion of Jesus CrucifixionDepositionResurrectionPentecost
Tradition: later life
Bilocation to Saint JamesDormition TombAssumptionCoronationQueenship Woman of the Apocalypse
Apocryphal
Protoevangelium of James
Mariology
Christian
AnglicanCatholic historypapalOrthodoxProtestant Lutheran
Other
Islamic
Veneration
Apparitions listCatholic churchesChristmasDevotions month of MayFeast daysPatronageShrinesVeneration of Mary in the Catholic Church
Titles
ChristotokosCoredemptrixHelp of ChristiansImmaculate HeartLife-giving SpringMediatrix (of all graces)New EvePanagiaOur Lady of NavigatorsOur Lady of SorrowsOur Lady of VictoryStar of the SeaSeat of WisdomTheotokos
Prayers
AngelusAntiphons Alma Redemptoris MaterAve Regina caelorumSalve ReginaRegina caeliAve MariaFátima prayersHymns AkathistAve maris stellaSub tuum praesidiumLitany LoretoMagnificatMaria mater gratiaeMemorareRosaryThree Hail Marys
Art
West
AssumptionBlack MadonnaGolden Madonna of EssenThe Golden VirginPietàQueen of HeavenStabat Mater
East
Agiosoritissa Madonna del RosarioDerzhavnayaEleusa Theotokos of SmolenskTheotokos of VladimirHodegetria
Related
Life of the VirginSaint Luke painting the Virgin
Category Saints Portal
Links to related articles
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Liturgical year of the Catholic Church
Ordinary Form of the Roman Rite of the Latin Church (1969 Calendar)
Advent
Sundays 1st2nd3rd4thImmaculate ConceptionDecember 17 to 23
Christmas Season
Christmas Christmas EveMidnight MassHoly FamilyMary, Mother of GodEpiphanyBaptism of the Lord
Ordinary Time
Presentation of the Lord
Lent
Ash WednesdaySundays 1st2nd3rd4th5thSaint JosephAnnunciationPalm SundayHoly Week
Paschal Triduum
Holy Thursday Chrism MassMass of the Lord's SupperGood FridayHoly SaturdayEaster Vigil
Easter Season
Easter Sunday OctaveSundays 2nd Divine Mercy Sunday3rd4th5th6th7thAscensionPentecost
Ordinary Time
Trinity SundayCorpus ChristiSacred HeartVisitationNativity of John the BaptistSaints Peter and PaulTransfigurationAssumptionNativity of MaryExaltation of the CrossAll Saints' Day / All Hallows' Day All Saints' Eve / All Hallows' EveAll Souls' DayPresentation of MaryChrist the King
Tridentine Mass of the Roman Rite of the Latin Church (1960 Calendar)
LegendItalic font marks the 10 holy days of obligation in the universal calendar which do not normally fall on a Sunday.
Older calendars 1955pre-1955TridentineLiturgical coloursRankingComputusEaster cycleicon Catholic Church portal
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Algeria Holidays, observances, and celebrations in Algeria
January
New Year's Day (1)Yennayer (12)
February
Valentine's Day (14)Tafsut (28)
March
International Women's Day (8)Victory Day (19)World Water Day (22)Maghrebi Blood Donation Day (30)Spring vacation (2 last weeks)
April
April Fools' Day (1)Knowledge Day (16)Berber Spring (20)Earth Day (22)Election Day (Thursday)
May
International Workers' Day (1)World Press Freedom Day (3)Mother's Day (last Sunday)
June–July–August
Summer vacation (varies)
June
Children's Day (1)Father's Day (21)
July
Independence Day (5)
September
International Day of Peace (21)
October
International Day of Non-Violence (2)Halloween (31)
November
Revolution Day (1)
December
Christmas Eve (24)Christmas (25)New Year's Eve (31)Winter vacation (2 last weeks)
Varies (year round)
Hijri New Year's Day (Muharram 1)Ashura (Muharram 10) Ashura in AlgeriaMawlid (Rabi' al-Awwal 12) Mawlid in AlgeriaRamadan (Ramadan 1)Laylat al-Qadr (Ramadan 27)Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1)Day of Arafah (Dhu al-Hijjah 9)Eid al-Adha (Dhu al-Hijjah 10)
Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in Algeria, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
See also: Lists of holidays.
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Public holidays in Australia
New Year's DayAustralia DayGood FridayEaster SaturdayEaster MondayAnzac DayKing's BirthdayLabour DayChristmas DayBoxing Day
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Public holidays in Canada
Nationwide statutory holidays
New Year's DayGood FridayCanada DayLabour DayChristmas Day
Statutory holidays for
federal employees
Easter MondayVictoria DayNational Day for Truth and ReconciliationThanksgivingRemembrance DayBoxing Day
Indigenous holidays
National Indigenous Peoples DayNational Day for Truth and Reconciliation
Anishinaabe GiizhigadGoose BreakHobiyeePestie'wa'taqetimkQuviasukvik
Other common holidays
April Fools' DayAugust Civic HolidayCommonwealth DayEarth DayEmancipation DayFather's DayFlag DayGrandparents' DayGroundhog Day/Daks DayHalloweenInternational Women's DayMother's DayNational Family WeekNational Peacekeepers' DaySaint Patrick's DayTartan DayValentine's DayWhite Ribbon Day
Alberta Family DayBritish Columbia Family DayManitoba Louis Riel DayNew Brunswick Family DayLoyalist DayNewfoundland & Labrador Discovery DayMemorial DayOrangemen's DaySaint George's DayNova Scotia Davis DayHeritage DayNatal DayNunavut Nunavut DayOntario Family DayLoyalist DayPrince Edward Island Gold Cup Parade DayIslander DayQuébec Construction HolidayGoose BreakNational Patriots' DaySaint-Jean-Baptiste DaySaskatchewan Family DayYukon Discovery Day
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Hong Kong Public holidays in Hong Kong
New Year's DayLunar New Year (first 3 days of the period)Ching Ming FestivalGood FridayHoly SaturdayEaster MondayBuddha's BirthdayLabour DayTuen Ng FestivalHong Kong SAR Establishment DayMid-Autumn FestivalPRC National DayAnniversary of the Xinhai RevolutionChung Yeung FestivalChristmas DayBoxing Day
Cancelled
Queen's BirthdayLiberation DayDouble Ten DayRemembrance Day
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Indonesia Public holidays in Indonesia
Joint holidayNew Year's DayChinese New YearNyepiGood FridayEasterLabour DayAscension DayVesakPancasila DayIndependence DayChristmasIslamic New YearMawlidIsra' and Mi'rajEid al-FitrEid al-Adha
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Public holidays in Ireland
New Year's DaySaint Brigid's DaySaint Patrick's DayEaster MondayMay DayJune HolidayAugust HolidayOctober HolidayChristmas DaySaint Stephen's Day
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Malaysia Public holidays in Malaysia
National holidays
Chinese New YearLabour DayWesak DayEid al-FitrEid al-AdhaIslamic New YearMerdeka DayMuharramAgong's BirthdayMalaysia DayMuhammad's BirthdayChristmas
State holidays
(differ by states)
New Year's DayYang di-Pertua Negeri Sembilan's BirthdaySultan of Kedah's BirthdayThaipusamFederal Territory DayAnniversary of Installation of the Sultan of TerengganuSultan of Johor's BirthdayIsra and Mi'rajDeclaration of Malacca City as Historical CityGood FridaySultan of Terengganu's BirthdayFirst Day of RamadanDay of Nuzul Al-QuranTadau KaamatanGawai DayakDeclaration of George Town as World Heritage SitePenang State Governor's BirthdayRaja of Perlis's BirthdaySarawak DayHol Day of Sultan Iskandar of JohorSabah State Governor's BirthdayMalacca State Governor's BirthdaySarawak State Governor's BirthdaySultan of Pahang's BirthdayDeepavaliSultan of Perak's BirthdaySultan of Kelantan's BirthdaySultan of Selangor's BirthdayChristmas Eve
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Public holidays in Mexico
Statutory holidays
Año NuevoDía de la ConstituciónNatalicio de Benito JuárezDía del TrabajoDía de IndependenciaDía de la RevoluciónTransmisión del Poder Ejecutivo FederalNavidad
Civic holidays
Día del EjércitoDía de la BanderaAniversario de la Expropiación petroleraHeroica Defensa de VeracruzCinco de MayoNatalicio de Miguel HidalgoDía de la MarinaGrito de DoloresDía de los Niños HéroesConsumación de la IndependenciaNatalicio de José Ma. Morelos y PavónDescubrimiento de América
Festivities
Día de los Santos ReyesDía de San ValentínDía del NiñoDía de las MadresDía del MaestroDía del estudianteDía del PadreDía de Todos los SantosDía de los Fieles DifuntosDía de la Virgen de GuadalupeLas PosadasNochebuenaDia de los Santos Inocentes
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Public holidays in Myanmar
National holidays
New Year's DayIndependence DayUnion DayPeasants' DayFull Moon Day of TabaungArmed Forces DayThingyanLabour DayFull Moon Day of KasonMartyrs' DayFull Moon Day of KasonFull Moon Day of ThadingyutFull Moon Day of TazaungmonNational DayChristmasEid al-AdhaDiwali
flag Myanmar portal
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Public holidays in New Zealand
New Year's DayJanuary 2Waitangi DayGood FridayEaster SundayEaster MondayAnzac DayKing's BirthdayMatarikiLabour DayChristmas DayBoxing Day
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Philippines Public holidays in the Philippines
Regular holidays
New Year's DayMaundy ThursdayGood FridayDay of ValorLabor DayIndependence DayEid'l FitrNational Heroes DayEid'l AdhaBonifacio DayChristmasRizal Day
Special non-working days
Chinese New YearEDSA Revolution AnniversaryBlack SaturdayNinoy Aquino DayAll Saints' Day and All Souls' DayFeast of the Immaculate ConceptionChristmas EveLast day of the year
Italicized: Movable holidaySee also: Holiday economics
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South Africa Public holidays in South Africa
New Year's DayHuman Rights DayGood FridayFamily DayFreedom DayWorkers' DayYouth DayNational Women's DayHeritage DayDay of ReconciliationChristmas DayDay of Goodwill
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Public holidays in Sri Lanka
Jan–Mar
Thai PongalDuruthu Poya DayIndependence DayNavam Poya DayMaha ShivratriMadin Poya Day
Apr–Jun
Sinhala and Tamil New Year Day eveSinhalese New Year/Tamil New YearBak Poya DayGood FridayMay DayVesak Poya DayDay following Vesak Poya DayId-Ul-Fitr (Ramazan Festival Day)Poson
Jul–Sep
Esala Poya DayId-Ul-Alha (Hadji Festival Day)Nikini Poya DayBinara Poya Day
Oct–Dec
Vap Poya DayDeepavali Festival DayMilad-Un-Nabi (Holy Prophet’s Birthday)Ill Poya DayUnduvap Poya DayChristmas Day
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Thailand Public holidays in Thailand
National holidays
New Year's DayMagha PujaChakri Memorial DaySongkranLabour DayRoyal Ploughing Ceremony and Farmer's DayVesakKing Vajiralongkorn's BirthdayAsalha PujaVassaQueen Sirikit's BirthdayKing Bhumibol Adulyadej's Memorial DayKing Chulalongkorn DayKing Bhumibol Adulyadej's BirthdayConstitution DayNew Year's Eve
Region-based holidays
Chinese New YearEid al-FitrEid al-AdhaChristmas
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Ukraine Public holidays in Ukraine
New Year's Day (1 January)International Women's Day (8 March)Orthodox Easter (moveable)Orthodox Pentecost (moveable)Labour Day (1 May)Day of Remembrance and Victory over Nazism in World War II (8 May)Constitution Day (28 June)Statehood Day (15 July)Independence Day (24 August)Defenders of Ukraine Day (1 October)Christmas (25 December)
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Public holidays in the United Kingdom
All regions
New Year's DayMay Bank HolidaySummer Bank HolidayChristmas DayBoxing Day
England and Wales
Good FridayEaster MondaySpring Bank Holiday
Northern Ireland
Saint Patrick's DayEaster MondayEaster TuesdaySpring Bank HolidayBattle of the Boyne (Orangemen's Day)
Scotland
2nd JanuaryGood FridaySt Andrew's Day (optional)
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Federal holidays in the United States
Current
New Year's DayBirthday of Martin Luther King, Jr.Washington's BirthdayMemorial DayJuneteenthIndependence DayLabor DayColumbus DayVeterans DayThanksgiving DayChristmas Day
Proposed
VE Day (1945)Victory Day (1950)Flag Day (1950)Election Day/Democracy Day (1993, 2005, 2014)Malcolm X Day (1993–1994)Cesar Chavez Day (2008)Susan B. Anthony Day (2011)Native American Day (2013)Patriot Day (2021)Rosa Parks Day (2021)
Related
Uniform Monday Holiday Act
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Holidays, observances, and celebrations in the United States
January
New Year's Day (federal)Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. (federal)
Birthday of Eugenio María de Hostos (PR)Confederate Heroes Day (TX)Eve of Three Kings' Day (PR, religious)Feast of Epiphany / Feast of Theophany (religious)Fred Korematsu Day (AZ, CA, FL, HI, VA)Idaho Human Rights Day (ID)Inauguration Day (federal quadrennial)Kansas Day (KS)Makar Sankranti / Pongal (religious)Robert E. Lee Day (FL)Stephen Foster Memorial Day (36)The Eighth (LA)Three Kings' Day (PR, VI, religious)World Religion Day (religious)
January–February
Chinese New Year / Lunar New Year (NY, cultural, religious)Vasant Panchami (religious)
February
American Heart Month
Black History Month
Washington's Birthday (federal)Valentine's Day
Birthday of Luis Muñoz Marín (PR)Candlemas (religious)Charles Darwin Day / Darwin Day (CA, DE)Day of Remembrance (CA, OR, WA, cultural)Georgia Day (GA)Groundhog DayImbolc (religious)Lincoln's Birthday (CA, CT, IL, IN, MO, NY, WV)National Girls and Women in Sports DayNational Freedom Day (36)Nirvana Day (religious)Presentation of Our Lord to the Temple (religious)Promised Reformer Day (religious)Ronald Reagan Day (CA)Rosa Parks Day (CA, MO)Saviours' Day (religious)Susan B. Anthony Day (CA, FL, NY, WI, WV, proposed federal)Tu B’shvat (religious)
February–March
Mardi Gras
Ash Wednesday (PR, religious)Carnival (PR, VI, religious)Clean Monday (religious)Courir de Mardi Gras (religious)Intercalary Days (religious)Mahashivaratri (religious)Purim (religious)Shrove Tuesday (religious)Super Tuesday
March
Irish-American Heritage Month
Colon Cancer Awareness Month
Women's History Month
Saint Patrick's Day (ethnic)Spring break (week)
Annunciation of the Virgin Mary / Annunciation of the Theotokos (religious)Casimir Pulaski Day (IL)Cesar Chavez Day (CA, CO, TX, proposed federal)Emancipation Day in Puerto Rico (PR, cultural)Evacuation Day (Suffolk County, MA)Harriet Tubman Day (NY)Hola Mohalla (religious)Holi (NY, religious)Lailat al-Mi'raj (religious)Liberation and Freedom Day (Charlottesville, VA, cultural)Mardi Gras (AL (in two counties), LA)Maryland Day (MD)Medal of Honor DayNational Poison Prevention Week (week)Nowruz (cultural, religious)Ostara (religious)Pi DayPrince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole Day (HI)Promised Messiah Day (religious)Saint Joseph's Day (religious)Seward's Day (AK)Texas Independence Day (TX)Town Meeting Day (VT)Transfer Day (VI)U.S. Hostage and Wrongful Detainee Day (36)Trans Day of Visibility (cultural)
March–April
Easter (religious)
Good Friday (CT, NC, PR, NJ, VI, religious)Hanuman Jayanti (religious)Holy Thursday (PR, VI, religious)Holy Week (PR, religious, week)Lazarus Saturday (religious)Mahavir Janma Kalyanak (religious)Mesha Sankranti / Hindu New Year (religious)Palm Sunday (PR, religious)Passover (religious, week)Easter Monday / Bright Monday (VI, religious)Ramnavami (religious)Chandramana Uugadi / Souramana Uugadi (religious)
April
Arab American Heritage Month
Confederate History Month
420April Fools' DayArbor DayBirthday of José de Diego (PR)Confederate Memorial Day (AL, MS)Days of Remembrance of the Victims of the Holocaust (week)DNA DayEarth DayEmancipation Day (cultural)Thomas Jefferson's Birthday (AL)Lag B’Omer (religious)Last Friday of Great Lent (religious)National First Ladies DayPascua Florida (FL)Patriots' Day (MA, ME)Ridván (religious)San Jacinto Day (TX)Siblings DayWalpurgis Night (religious)Yom Ha'atzmaut (cultural, religious)
May
Asian American and
Pacific Islander Heritage Month
Jewish American Heritage Month
Military Appreciation Month
Memorial Day (federal)Mother's Day (36)Cinco de Mayo
Ascension of Baháʼu'lláh (religious)Ascension of Our Lord (religious)Caliphate Day (religious)Declaration of the Bab (religious)Harvey Milk Day (CA)International Workers' Day / May Day (CA, unofficial, proposed state)Law Day (36)Loyalty Day (36)Malcolm X Day (CA, IL, proposed federal)Military Spouse DayNational Day of Prayer (36)National Day of ReasonNational Defense Transportation Day (36)National Maritime Day (36)Peace Officers Memorial Day (36)Pentecost (religious)Shavuot (religious)Truman Day (MO)Vesak / Buddha's Birthday (religious)
June
Pride Month
Juneteenth (federal, cultural)Father's Day (36)
Bunker Hill Day (Suffolk County, MA)Carolina Day (SC)Don Young Day (AK)Fast of the Holy Apostles (religious)Flag Day (36, proposed federal)Helen Keller Day (PA)Honor America Days (3 weeks)Jefferson Davis Day (AL, FL)Kamehameha Day (HI)Litha (religious)Martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev Sahib (religious)Odunde Festival (Philadelphia, PA, cultural)Senior Week (week)Saint John's Day (PR, religious)West Virginia Day (WV)Women Veterans Day
July
Independence Day (federal)
Asalha Puja Day (religious)Birthday of Don Luis Muñoz Rivera (PR)Birthday of Dr. José Celso Barbosa (PR)Emancipation Day in the U.S. Virgin Islands (VI, cultural)Guru Purnima (religious)Khordad Sal (religious)Lā Hoʻihoʻi Ea (HI, unofficial, cultural)Martyrdom of the Báb (religious)Parents' Day (36)Pioneer Day (UT)Puerto Rico Constitution Day (PR)
July–August
Summer vacationTisha B'Av (religious)
August
American Family Day (AZ)Barack Obama Day in Illinois (IL)Bennington Battle Day (VT)Dormition of the Theotokos (religious)Eid-e-Ghadeer (religious)Fast in Honor of the Holy Mother of Lord Jesus (religious)Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (religious)Hawaii Admission Day / Statehood Day (HI)Krishna Janmashtami (religious)Lammas (religious)Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (TX)Naga Panchami (religious)National Aviation Day (36)Paryushana (religious)Raksha Bandhan (religious)Transfiguration of the Lord (religious)Victory Day (RI)Women's Equality Day (36)
September
Prostate Cancer Awareness Month
Childhood Cancer Awareness Month
Gospel Music Heritage Month
Labor Day (federal)
Brazilian Day (NY, cultural)California Admission Day (CA)Carl Garner Federal Lands Cleanup Day (36)Constitution Day and Citizenship Day (36)Constitution WeekDefenders Day (MD)Elevation of the Holy Cross (religious)Feast of San Gennaro (NY, cultural, religious)Ganesh Chaturthi (religious)Gold Star Mother's Day (36)His Holiness Sakya Trizin's Birthday (religious)Mabon (religious)National Grandparents Day (36)National Payroll Week (week)Nativity of Mary / Nativity of the Theotokos (religious)Native American Day (proposed federal)Patriot Day (36)Von Steuben Day
September–October
Hispanic Heritage Month
Chehlum Imam Hussain (religious)OktoberfestPitri Paksha (religious)Rosh Hashanah / Feast of Trumpets (TX, NY, religious)Shemini Atzeret (religious)Simchat Torah (religious)Vijaya Dashami (religious)Yom Kippur / Day of Atonement (TX, NY, religious)
October
Breast Cancer Awareness Month
Disability Employment Awareness Month
Italian-American Heritage and Culture Month
Filipino American History Month
LGBT History Month
Columbus Day (federal)Halloween
Alaska Day (AK)Child Health Day (36)General Pulaski Memorial DayGerman-American DayIndigenous Peoples' DayInternational Day of Non-ViolenceLeif Erikson Day (36)Missouri Day (MO)Nanomonestotse (cultural)National School Lunch Week (week)Native American Day in South Dakota (SD)Nevada Day (NV)Spirit Day (cultural)Sweetest DaySukkot / Feast of Tabernacles (religious, week)Virgin Islands–Puerto Rico Friendship Day (PR, VI)White Cane Safety Day (36)
October–November
Birth of the Báb (religious)Birth of Baháʼu'lláh (religious)Day of the Dead (VI)Diwali (NY, religious)Mawlid al-Nabi (religious)
November
Native American Indian Heritage Month
Veterans Day (federal)Thanksgiving (federal)
Ascension of ‘Abdu’l Baha (religious)All Saints' Day (religious)Beginning of the Nativity Fast (religious)Beltane / Samhain (religious)Barack Obama Day in Alabama (Perry County, AL)D. Hamilton Jackson Day (VI)Day after Thanksgiving (24)Day of the Covenant (religious)Discovery of Puerto Rico Day (PR)Election Day (CA, DE, HI, KY, MT, NJ, NY, OH, PR, VA, WV, proposed federal)Family Day (NV)FriendsgivingGuru Nanak Gurpurab (religious)Hanukkah (religious)Lā Kūʻokoʻa (HI, unofficial, cultural)Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur (religious)Native American Heritage Day (MD, WA, cultural)Presentation of the Theotokos to the Temple (religious)Trans Day of Remembrance (cultural)Unthanksgiving Day (cultural)
December
Christmas (religious, federal)New Year's Eve
Advent Sunday (religious)Alabama Day (AL)Birthday of Guru Gobind Singh Sahib (religious)Bodhi Day (religious)Chalica (religious)Christmas Eve (KY, NC, SC, PR, VI)Day after Christmas (KY, NC, SC, TX, VI)FestivusHumanLightHanukkah (religious, week)Immaculate Conception (religious)Indiana Day (IN)Kwanzaa (cultural, week)Milad Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin (religious)National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (36)Nativity of Jesus (religious)Old Year's Night (VI)Pan American Aviation Day (36)Pancha Ganapati (religious, week)Rosa Parks Day (OH, OR)Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God (religious)Wright Brothers Day (36)Yule (religious)Zartosht No-Diso (religious)
Varies (year round)
Eid al-Adha (NY, religious)Eid al-Fitr (NY, religious)Islamic New Year (religious)Yawm al-Arafa (religious)Hajj (religious)Laylat al-Qadr (religious)Navaratri (religious, four times a year)Obon (religious)Onam (religious)Ramadan (religious, month)Ghost Festival (religious)Yawm Aashura (religious)
Legend:
(federal) = federal holidays, (abbreviation) = state/territorial holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (cultural) = holiday related to a specific racial/ethnic group or sexual minority, (week) = week-long holidays, (month) = month-long holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies
See also: Lists of holidays, Hallmark holidays, Public holidays in the United States, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands.
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Winter solstice and midwinter festivals
Africa
Goru: Mali (Dogon)Dzon'ku Nu†: West Africa (Papaws)
Americas
Inti Raymi°: Peru (Inca†)Jonkonnu°: Caribbean° (African American)Soyal: US (Zuni, Hopi)We Tripantu: Chile (Mapuche)
Asia
Amaterasu†: JapanChoimusDeygān, Maidyarem°: (Zoroastrian)Dōngzhì, Tōji: (East Asian)Lohri, Pongal, Makar Sankranti°: India (Hindu)Sanghamitta Day: Sri Lanka (Buddhist)Şeva Zistanê: (Kurdish)Yalda: Iran (Persian)
Europe
Beiwe: (Saami)Brumalia†: Ancient GreeceChristmas: Roman Empire° (Christian)Dies Natalis Solis Invicti†: Roman EmpireHogmanay°: ScotlandKorochun°: (Slavs)Mōdraniht†: England (Anglo-Saxon)Montol Festival, Mummer's Day°: Cornwall (Celts)Saturnalia†: RomeWren's Day°: Ireland, Isle of Man, Wales (Celts)Yule°: (Germanic)Ziemassvētki: Baltic (Romuva)
Oceania
Matariki°: New Zealand (Māori)
† dagger indicates extinction. ° degree symbol indicates changes in date, name or location. ( ) indicate demographic
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Christianity
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Timeline of 1960s counterculture
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The following is a timeline of 1960s counterculture. Influential events and milestones years before and after the 1960s are included for context relevant to the subject period of the early 1960s through the mid-1970s.
1950s
1951
The True Believer: "Longshoreman-philosopher" Eric Hoffer's Thoughts on the Nature of Mass Movements is published.[1][2]
July 16: The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger is published.
1952
August: Mad magazine debuts as a comic book before adopting a standard magazine format in 1955. The publication satirizes both mainstream American culture and, later, counterculture alike.[3][4]
Invisible Man: Ralph Ellison's novel of African-American life in the 20th century is published.[5]
Go: John Clellon Holmes' novel is published and is later considered to be the first book depicting the Beat Generation.[6]
1953
April 13: Project MKUltra, the Central Intelligence Agency's behavior control research program that grew to include testing the effects of LSD and extended sensory deprivation on both volunteer and unsuspecting American and Canadian subjects into the 1960s, commences. Secret detention camps in Europe and Asia are also set up for torture and experiments on prisoners.[7]
May 4: The "doors of perception" open for author Aldous Huxley as he takes mescaline for the first time. Humphrey Osmond guides the trip, and later correspondence between the two produces the term psychedelic.[8]: 67
December: Marilyn Monroe centerfold: the first issue of Playboy magazine appears, published by Hugh Hefner.[9][10]
1954
May 17: Brown vs. Board of Education: The U.S. Supreme Court rules unanimously that the practice of racial segregation in public schools, mostly by Southern states, is unconstitutional. The doctrine of "Separate but Equal" as a moral or legal pretext for segregation is decreed no longer enforceable by governments, and the process of true racial integration begins in schools throughout the region, a process that was not completed until about 1970.[11][12]
1955
February: SEATO: The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization is formally activated, nominally obligating the U.S. to intervene as part of a collective action in case of military conflagrations in the region. The non-binding SEATO commitment, however, is not invoked as the justification for involvement in Vietnam by future President Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) until later escalation of hostilities there proves unpopular.[13]
July 9: "Rock Around the Clock": Pennsylvania country singer Bill Haley's version of the keystone song begins an eight-week run at number 1 on the Billboard charts. With deep roots in black jazz, blues, and R&B, as well as gospel and country music, the rock & roll era begins.[14][15]
August 28: Emmett Till murder: A Black adolescent is brutally slain by White vigilantes in rural Mississippi after allegedly flirting with a White woman. The incident becomes a pivotal event in the growing civil rights movement after Till's mother allows the boy's mutilated body to be viewed in an open-casket funeral, and after two White men (who years later confess to the murder) are acquitted by an all-White, all-male jury, the standard practice for that time in most of the country, and especially the South. In 2017, Till's apparently coerced female accuser recanted key testimony she gave under oath; the woman died in 2023.[16][17]
September 30: James Dean: The star of Rebel without a Cause and early icon of the disaffected generation dies in a sports car crash at age 24 at Cholame, California.[18][19][20]
October 7: Six Gallery Reading: Beat poet Allen Ginsberg first performs his soon-to-be scandalous Howl.[21][22]
October 26: The Village Voice: One of the earliest and most enduring alternative newspapers is launched by Ed Fancher, Dan Wolf, John Wilcock and Norman Mailer in New York City. The paper ceased publication in 2018, but pledged to digitize its vast archive.[23][24]
December 1: Activist Rosa Parks refuses to cede her seat on a public bus to a White passenger in Montgomery, Alabama (per Southern segregationist mores and codes), and is arrested. A successful bus boycott by local blacks led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., pastor of that city's Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, ensues, while the American Civil Liberties Union takes on and wins Parks' legal case. After over a year of Blacks refusing to ride, the U.S. Supreme Court orders the desegregation of Montgomery's bus system.[25]
1956
April 21: "Heartbreak Hotel": Elvis Presley's first number-one hit tops the popular music charts for eight weeks. The Mississippi-born singer who was working as a truck driver in Memphis, Tennessee creates teenage pandemonium in households throughout the U.S. and subsequently across the rest of the western world.[26]
August: The FBI's COINTELPRO domestic counterintelligence program commences. The surveillance effort is initially directed against stateside communist activities, but grows to include illegal invasions of privacy targeting civil rights and anti-war activists, particularly black activists.[27][28]
1957
Masters and Johnson begin scientific research into human sexual response in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Washington University School of Medicine. The first of many widely read books regarding their research is published in 1966.[29]
January 10: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) civil rights organization is formed in Atlanta, Georgia.[30]
September 5: On the Road: Years in the works, a somewhat tamed version of Jack Kerouac's seminal novel of the Beat Generation is published.[31][32]
September 23: US President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs an executive order sending federal troops to maintain peace and order during the racial integration of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas.[33] His main antagonist is Arkansas governor Orval Faubus.
October 4: The western world is shocked and deeply fearful when the Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1, the first artificial space satellite. The ability to launch a satellite equates to the ability to launch an intercontinental ballistic missile, thereby directly threatening much of the world with long-range missile attack for the first time.[34][35] Confidence is further shaken in December, when Vanguard, the rushed U.S. attempt to equal Sputnik, explodes on the launchpad.[36][37]
November 15: Albert Schweitzer, Coretta Scott King, and Benjamin Spock place a large advertisement in The New York Times calling for an end to the nuclear arms race. This leads to the creation of SANE, the Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy.[38]
1958
February 17: The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament is inaugurated in London, introducing the "Peace symbol" from semaphore signs for the letters C, N, and D.[39]
March 24: Elvis Presley, by then the biggest recording star in the world, is inducted into the U.S. Army. Presley serves his two years honorably.[40]
April 2: Herb Caen of the San Francisco Chronicle coins the term beatnik to refer to aficionados of the Beat Generation.[41]
April 4–7: Over the Easter weekend, in London's Trafalgar Square, thousands protest in the first major Aldermaston march, organised by the Direct Action Committee Against Nuclear War and supported by CND. The protests are accompanied by a festival with jazz and skiffle bands.[42][43]
SANE claims 25,000 members in 130 chapters.[44]
The SLATE student political party, which resembles what later came to be termed the "New Left," is formed at the University of California, Berkeley.[45][46]
Eisenhower is the first U.S. president to ask a joint session of Congress to pass the long-debated Equal Rights Amendment.[47]
The Affluent Society: Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith's highly influential work is published.[48]
1959
January 1: Revolutionary forces under the leadership of Fidel Castro overthrow the corrupt Batista government in Cuba. Fifty years of repressive rule by the future Soviet ally ensue before Castro relinquishes control to his brother.[49][50][51]
February 3: The Day the Music Died: Early rock stars Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper are killed along with the pilot of a small plane in bad weather near Clear Lake, Iowa. Guitarist Tommy Allsup "loses" his seat after a coin-flip with Valens, and Holly's bass player (and future country music legend) Waylon Jennings also misses the doomed flight when he allows the ill "Bopper" to take his seat.[52][53] In 1972, Don McLean's "American Pie," a commemoration of the incident, is released, and is later called "the accessible farewell to the Fifties and Sixties."[54]
How to Speak Hip: Improv pioneers Del Close and John Brent's satirical comedy record is released and formalizes hip parlance for a generation.[55][56]
1960s
1960
The Student League for Industrial Democracy changes its name to Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and first meets in Ann Arbor, Michigan. SDS dissociates itself from LID in 1965, and becomes the most notable radical student political organization of the counterculture era.[57][58]
A beatnik community in Cornwall, UK noted for wearing their hair past their shoulders, and including a young Wizz Jones, is interviewed by Alan Whicker for BBC television.[59]
Harvard University lecturer Timothy Leary and assistant professor Richard Alpert begin experimenting with hallucinogens at Cambridge, Massachusetts. The highly controversial Leary soon becomes the most notable advocate of LSD use during the era.[60][61]
February 1: The first of the Greensboro sit-ins in North Carolina sparks a wave of similar protests against segregation at Woolworth and other retail store lunch counters across the American South.[62]
March 26: Governor Buford Ellington of Tennessee orders an investigation into a CBS news crew that filmed a Nashville sit-in.[63]
April: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) is organized by Ella Baker at Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina.[64]
May 1: U-2 Incident: a U.S. spy plane searching for Soviet nuclear installations is shot down deep within the U.S.S.R. Presumed dead by the U.S., the CIA pilot Francis Gary Powers is captured alive and paraded in the Russian press after the White House enlists NASA in a botched and quickly exposed deception claiming that the plane went missing during a weather flight.[65][66]
May 9: The Pill: The U.S. Food & Drug Administration approves the use of the first reliable form of birth control: a 99%-effective pill. The Sexual revolution commences, at first in the bedrooms of married couples.[67][68]
May 13: Anti-HUAC protest in San Francisco: 400 police using fire hoses force a student "mob" out of a House Un-American Activities Committee hearing at City Hall in San Francisco. The counterculture era of student political protest, outside of the ongoing civil rights movement, begins.[69][70][71]
May 19: SANE, the Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy, holds an anti-nuclear arms race rally at Madison Square Garden in New York City, attended by 20,000 people.[72]
July 11: To Kill A Mockingbird: Harper Lee's Pulitzer Prize-winning story of racial inequality is published and becomes a classic of American literature. The story is adapted into a movie in 1962.[73]
November 8: John F. Kennedy is elected 35th president of the United States, defeating sitting Vice President Richard Nixon in what is considered to be the closest and most intellectually charged US presidential election since 1916.[74][75][76] Nearly 70 million ballots are cast, but the margin of victory is approximately 100,000 votes.[77]
1961
January: Look Magazine journalist George Leonard writes about "Youth of the Sixties: The Explosive Generation" and predicts that the "quiet generation" of the 1950s "is rumbling and is going to explode".[78][79]
January 17: U.S. President (and retired 5-Star Army General) Dwight Eisenhower gives his farewell address to the nation, and uses much of his time to warn of the undue influence of the "military–industrial complex".[80]
January 20: In a powerful inaugural address, new U.S. President Kennedy calls upon citizens to "ask not what your country can do for you–-ask what you can do for your country".[81][82]
March 1: Kennedy signs an executive order creating the Peace Corps.[83]
March 28: Although he supported the program during the 1960 campaign, Kennedy orders final cancellation of full production of the oft-resurrected USAF B-70 Bomber program, in a significant attempted to control the nuclear arms race.[84]
March 30: The United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is signed in New York City, tightening controls on international trade in opiates.[85]
April 12: Vostok: Man in Space: The Western world is again shocked when the Soviet Union follows its Sputnik triumph by putting the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin.[86]
April 17: Bay of Pigs: A secret CIA-led invasion force intent on overthrowing Communist dictator Fidel Castro lands on a remote beach in Cuba. Anti-Castro Cuban expatriates and CIA mercenaries are overtaken and captured by Cuban forces. President Kennedy attempts to cut losses and refuses to provide additional U.S. air support, dooming the operation.[87][88]
May 4: Freedom Riders: Civil rights activists travel on public buses and trains across the American South to personally confront and challenge segregation.[89]
June 4: Kennedy meets with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in Vienna, and reports no progress on issues concerning a partitioned Germany. Another Berlin Crisis ensues.[90][91]
July: Amnesty International is formed in London after British attorney Peter Benenson is outraged by the arrest of two students who raise a toast to freedom in Portugal. The human rights organization wins the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977.[92][93]
August 13: Berlin Wall: To stem the massive tide of emigration from the Communist East into the democratic West (200,000 escape East Germany in 1960 alone), the construction of a wall dividing the city of Berlin begins under Soviet direction.[94]
October 25: U.S. and Soviet tanks face off at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin.[95][96]
November 1: Women Strike for Peace: 50,000 women march in 60 cities throughout the U.S. to demonstrate against nuclear weapons.[97][98]
November 30: Cuban Project: Aggressive covert operations against Fidel Castro's revolutionary rule in Cuba are authorized by President Kennedy and soon implemented under the direction of his brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. Implementation of the plan is highly unorthodox, with command oversight bring given to the new Attorney General, and not career military or intelligence officers.[99][100][101]
December 14: Kennedy signs an executive order establishing the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women.[102][103]
1962
January: Black is Beautiful: The African Jazz-Art Society stages "Naturally '62," a fashion show in Harlem, popularizing the phrase which would become important to the culture of the civil rights movement.[104]
January 12: Operation Chopper: U.S. forces participate in major combat in Vietnam for the first time.[105]
January 18: Operation Ranch Hand: The U.S. military begins the use of extremely toxic and carcinogenic defoliants in Vietnam. Use of the dioxin-containing Agent Orange begins in 1965.[106] Agent Orange has profound effects on large numbers of Vietnam veterans after the war ends.
March 16: U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara reveals that American troops in Vietnam have engaged in ground combat.
March 19: Bob Dylan's self-named first album is released. It reaches #13 in the UK, but does not chart on the Billboard 200 in the U.S. Dylan's second album, The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan, makes an enormous impact on the American folk and pop music scenes in 1963.[107]
March 31: Cesar Chavez begins organizing migrant farm workers in California.[108]
June 15: The SDS completes the Port Huron Statement, its manifesto calling for participatory democracy and non-violent civil disobedience as well as outlining its perceived problems with modern society.[109]
July–August: The Albany Movement civil rights protest against segregation is active in Georgia.
August 4: Film star Marilyn Monroe dies of a barbiturate overdose under suspicious circumstances in Los Angeles. Monroe's death is a precursor to an explosion of recreational use of highly addictive prescription drugs (and thousands of accidental pill overdose deaths) during the counterculture era, even as legitimate use of these drugs is already in decline.[110][111]
September 12: John F. Kennedy speaks at Rice University: "... we choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard ..."[112]
September 27: Silent Spring: Following a growing groundswell of reports on the deleterious effects of DDT use on the ecosystem, Rachel Carson's exposé is published and the modern environmental movement begins.[113][114]
October 1: Following a riot which leaves 2 dead and over 300 injured on September 30, James Meredith is the first African-American student to enter the University of Mississippi, known popularly as "Ole Miss".[115][116]
October 5: "Love Me Do": The Beatles' first single is released in Great Britain. From this modest beginning the group eventually goes on to sell over 600 million records worldwide and remains as of 2023 the best selling musical group of all time. Earlier in the year, Decca Records and other labels chose not to sign the group to a contract.[117][118][119]
October 16–28: The Cuban Missile Crisis brings the world to the brink of nuclear war after the U.S.S.R. attempts to station missiles with nuclear warheads in Cuba. On October 22, President Kennedy bluntly addresses the nation on a matter of "highest national urgency" and discusses the possibility of global nuclear war. Kennedy's generals advise him to invade Cuba, but he orders a naval blockade instead. The Soviets back down and remove the missiles.[120][121][122]
The Esalen Institute is founded in Big Sur, California by Michael Murphy and Dick Price.[123]
Sex and the Single Girl: Helen Gurley Brown's post-pill career and dating manual becomes a best-seller. Brown's attempted stunt to have the book "banned" for marketing purposes fails, but early sales top two million copies. Brown goes on to edit the influential Cosmopolitan Magazine for over 30 years.[124]
The Other America: Michael Harrington's compelling study of the intractable plight of the poor in the U.S. is published. The book is later credited as an inspiration to President Lyndon Johnson's "War on poverty."[125]
Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest is published. The novel draws in part from Kesey's experiences as an MKUltra volunteer. An Oscar-winning adaptation hits theaters in 1975.[126][127]
Seven Days in May, a novel depicting a foiled military coup in the U.S., is published. A film follows in 1964 with an all-star cast.[128]
1963
Bob Fass begins the long-running late night Radio Unnameable program on WBAI-FM in New York City, a non-commercial listener-supported station that is later remembered as "the pulse of the movement" by Wavy Gravy.[129][130][131]
Principia Discordia is published, starting the Discordian movement.[132]
February 19: Influenced by Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex, Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique is published. The modern feminist movement is born.[133]
April: Chandler Laughlin organizes a Native American Church peyote ceremony, a forerunner to the Red Dog Experience.
April–May: Birmingham Campaign: Civil rights activists organized by James Bevel and Martin Luther King are attacked by police in Birmingham, Alabama. Similar events occur at various locations across Southern states throughout the spring and summer.
May 1: Undercover Bunny: Gloria Steinem's Playboy Club exposé appears in Show Magazine.[133]
May: Louie Louie: The Kingsmen's version of the rock party standard is released. An FBI investigation revolves around the song's purportedly obscene lyrics but turns up no evidence. Extraneous to the garbled lyrics, the drummer yelling "f*ck" is barely audible 54 seconds into the song.[134][135]
May: The first organized Vietnam War protests occur in England and Australia.
June 10: A Strategy of Peace: President Kennedy delivers a powerful commencement speech at American University.[136]
June 11: Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc self-immolates in Saigon. AP photographer Malcolm Browne's coverage of the horrific event reportedly motivates Kennedy to increase U.S. troop strength in the developing Vietnam War.[137][138]
June 12: NAACP Field Secretary Medgar Evers is assassinated in Jackson, Mississippi.[139]
June 17: The U.S. Supreme Court rules in the Abington School District v. Schempp case that public school-sponsored Bible reading is not permitted by the First Amendment of the Constitution.[140][141]
July 26–28: The Newport Folk Festival in Rhode Island features Bob Dylan and fellow protest singers Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Phil Ochs, and Peter, Paul & Mary.[142][143]
August 28: I Have a Dream: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gives his landmark speech before 200,000 on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.[144]
September 24: The U.S. Senate ratifies The Partial Test Ban Treaty as signed by the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, ending testing of nuclear weapons under water, in the atmosphere, and in space.[145]
September 26: The US Senate debates a report accusing folk music of promoting Communism. Two senators speak and conclude the musicians were entitled to speak their minds freely. The report was dismissed.[146]
October 21, 1960: Publication of Paul Goodman's Growing Up Absurd, a deeply critical examination of American society, which Goodman held responsible for the widespread sense of alienation among American youth. The book was widely read by college students and young activists throughout the Sixties, and Goodman was invited to speak at hundreds of colleges.
October 27: 225,000 students in Chicago public schools boycott classes in protest against ongoing segregation.
October 31: Harvard University is scandalized by a disclosure that students have engaged in on-campus "sex orgies."[147]
November 2: South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated in Saigon.[148]
November 22: U.S. President John F. Kennedy is assassinated while traveling in an open-air motorcade during a visit to Dallas, Texas at age 46. Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson is sworn in as 36th president shortly thereafter, on a return plane to Washington before it takes off.[149]
November 24: Suspected Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is himself murdered by a Dallas nightclub proprietor, Jack Ruby, while he is being transported by inadequate police security in Dallas. The episodes adds further shock and anguish to an already-grief-stricken American public and creates doubt in the minds of those predisposed toward conspiratorial explanations of historical events. Such individuals begin circulating myriad theories concerning the original Kennedy Assassination and the veracity of later government investigations.[150]
1964
January: The Holy Modal Rounders' version of "Hesitation Blues" marks the first reference to the term psychedelic in popular music.[151]
January 8: President Johnson's State of the Union address features a declaration of "War on poverty".[152][153]
January 13: The Times They Are A-Changin': Bob Dylan's third album is released and the title track is soon considered to be the most prophetic and relevant American protest song of the era. Dylan disagrees with the interpretation, claiming instead that the song "is a feeling."[154][155]
January 23: The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution ratified: the U.S. Congress and states are prohibited from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other forms of tax.[156] This is a direct attack on policies aimed to deter blacks from voting in Southern states.
February 1: I Want to Hold Your Hand: The Beatles achieve their first hit No. 1 on Billboard with a 7-week run on top. Beatlemania has spread to America, and the monumental British Invasion of music across the free world is underway.[157][158]
February 3: Nearly half a million public school students participate in the New York City school boycott of classes in protest against segregation patterns.[159][160]
February 7–22: The Beatles make their first visit to the U.S. and are showcased three times on The Ed Sullivan Show. The February 9 telecast is seen by over 73 million viewers, and remains the largest audience for an American network broadcast television program to date in the US.[161][162]
February 25–26: Tens of thousands of school students in Boston and Chicago sit out of classes in protest against segregation in their respective cities.
April 4: Beatles singles occupy the top five slots on the Billboard Hot 100. This is an unprecedented chart achievement that has yet to be equaled by another recording artist.[163][164]
April 13: Sidney Poitier becomes the first man of African descent to win the Oscar for Best Actor in Santa Monica, California.[165][166]
April 20: Approximately 85% of black students in Cleveland boycott classes to protest segregation.[167]
May: Robert Jasper Grootveld's surreal happenings begin in Spui square in Amsterdam with his unpredictable performances and famous cries of "Klaas is Coming!" and "Uche, Uche, Uche". Later described as the "announcer of the international spirit of revolution," Grootveld gained a following of Nozems (Dutch rockers) and inspired the start of the Provo (Provocation) movement in both Holland and California, introducing a playful element into social protest.[168][169]
May: Appearance of the Faire Free Press (later the Los Angeles Free Press), considered the earliest of many "underground" American newspapers of the time.
May: San Francisco Sheraton Palace Hotel sit-ins result in arrests of University of California, Berkeley students protesting racially discriminatory hiring practices in the Bay area of California.[170]
May 7: President Johnson first refers to "the Great Society" in a speech at Ohio University.
May 12: The first public draft-card burning takes place in New York City.[171]
June 14: The Merry Pranksters: Led by author Ken Kesey, an assemblage of adventure seekers departs California in the repurposed school bus Further en route to the 1964 World's Fair in Queens, New York City.[172]
June 22: I Know it When I See it: The U.S. Supreme Court overturns the obscenity conviction of an Ohio theater operator. Although local obscenity battles continue for years, the decision clears the way for the commercial exhibition of sexually explicit film material throughout American, overriding state and local prohibitions.[173][174]
July 2: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is signed by President Johnson. Racial segregation in public places and race-based employment discrimination are now banned under Federal law.[175] Some Southern states and localities, however, begin a systematic program of opposition.
August 2: An Undeclared War: what were later revealed to be spurious incidents in the Gulf of Tonkin off the coast of Vietnam lead to the nearly unanimous passage of the a resolution by the U.S. Congress on August 7, giving the President broad authority, unprecedented in American history to engage in full "conventional" military escalation in Southeast Asia without obtaining a formal declaration of war.[176]
August 28: The Beatles reportedly use marijuana for the first time, allegedly supplied by Bob Dylan in New York City.[177][178]
September: Two National Farmers Organization members are killed when they and about 500 others attempt to stop a truck from taking cattle to market.[179]
October 1: The Free Speech Movement begins with a student sit-in at the University of California, Berkeley.[180][181][182]
October 14: Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. wins the Nobel Peace Prize.[183]
October 25: The Rolling Stones appear on The Ed Sullivan Show and create so much audience disruption that Sullivan bans the "lewd" group from his show. Sullivan, however, would rescind his ban due to the rock group's immense popularity during the remaining seven years of his program's duration.[184]
November 3: Sitting President Lyndon B. Johnson is elected in his own right, defeating Republican Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater in a landslide.[185] Goldwater campaigns on a hard-line conservative platform that includes opposition to Civil Rights measures and is accused by the Johnson campaign of favoring nuclear weapons to settle world conflicts, a point made in a television advertisement that is considered the first modern-day political "attack ad."
November 4: Comedian Lenny Bruce is convicted on obscenity charges in New York City after performing a routine about Eleanor Roosevelt's "tits" and other "offensive" subject matter. Bruce is soon sentenced to a workhouse.[186]
December 2: Put Your Bodies Upon the Gears: In a now-famous speech during a Berkeley sit-in, student Mario Savio tells supporters of the Free Speech Movement to protest the "machine" of the University of California's administration.[187][188]
1965
February 8: Aerial bombing of North Vietnam by the U.S. commences with Operation Rolling Thunder.
February 9–15: Thousands demonstrate against American attacks on North Vietnam at the U.S. Embassies in Moscow, Budapest, Jakarta, and Sofia.
February 21: Malcolm X, an Islamic cleric and the putative leader of the militant wing of the Civil Rights movement, is assassinated in New York City.[189]
March: Several protestors are arrested for publicly uttering profanity in the "Filthy Speech Movement" at UC Berkeley.[190][191]
March 7–25: The SCLC stages the watershed Selma to Montgomery marches, initially organized by James Bevel.
March 8: 1,400 Marines of the U.S. 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade begin to land on beaches near Da Nang. The arrival of the Marines heralds the direct involvement of American combat units in Vietnam.
March 16: Alice Herz, an 82-year-old German émigré, burns herself to death in Detroit while protesting escalation of military activities in Vietnam. Herz dies 10 days later.[192]
March 24–25: The first major "Teach-in" is held by the SDS in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Some 3000 persons attend.
March 25: For Your Love: Already a guitar legend, blues purist Eric Clapton quits The Yardbirds after the release of the proto-psychedelic hit. Clapton recommends Jimmy Page to fill his spot. Page declines the offer, but suggests Jeff Beck, who accepts. In 1966, Page joins the group.[193][194] He and several other British musicians would start the pioneering "heavy metal" band Led Zeppelin in 1968.
Spring: Don't trust anyone over 30: Berkeley graduate student and Free Speech activist Jack Weinberg's quip is quoted in paraphrase, inadvertently generating a key catchphrase frequently used by people in that age group.[195]
Spring: A circle of late-beat-era folk musicians including John Phillips, Michelle Phillips, Cass Elliot, and Denny Doherty rusticate in a communal beach tent on St. Thomas to party and create music. The working vacation, financed on Phillips' American Express card, results in the formation of The Mamas and the Papas, and a lucrative recording contract. The events are recounted in song on the group's hit 1967 single "Creeque Alley".[196]
April: Beatles John Lennon and George Harrison experience LSD for the first time at a British dinner party hosted by Harrison's dentist.[8]: 98 [197]
April: American combat troops in Vietnam total 25,000.
April 16: Needle of Death: The debut album of Scottish folk musician Bert Jansch features a song of warning concerning the deadly dangers of heroin.[198][199]
April 17: The first major anti-Vietnam War rally in the U.S. is organized by the SDS in Washington, D.C. 20,000 attend the March Against the Vietnam War. Folk singers Joan Baez, Judy Collins, and Phil Ochs perform.[200]
May: Owsley Stanley returns to the Bay Area of northern California with the first large batch of LSD to sell as a recreational drug.[201][202]
May 5: Draft card burnings take place in Berkeley. Several hundred University of California students confront the Berkeley Draft Board (BDB) and deliver a black coffin to the staff.[203]
May: Jerry Rubin, Stephen Smale, Paul Montauk, Abbie Hoffman and other war opponents form the Vietnam Day Committee.[203]
May 17: Hunter S. Thompson's article "The Motorcycle Gangs: A portrait of an outsider underground" appears in The Nation. A book based on the piece soon follows.[204]
May 20–22: The Vietnam Day Committee organizes the largest Vietnam teach-in to date. Some 30,000 reportedly attend the 36-hour event in Berkeley, including Benjamin Spock, Norman Thomas, Norman Mailer, Mario Savio, Paul Krassner, Dick Gregory and Phil Ochs. Hundreds march, again, to the local draft board office, where President Johnson is hanged in effigy, and many burn draft cards.[203][205][206]
May: Drop City: One of the earliest American hippie communes is founded in Colorado. The Droppers build geodesic domes constructed from trashed automobile hoods and roofs, notably involving collaborations with Steve Baer and Buckminster Fuller-inspired Zomes.[207][208]
June–August: Red Dog Experience comes into full flower at Virginia City, Nevada's Red Dog Saloon – a full-fledged "hippie" identity takes shape.
June 7: Griswold v. Connecticut: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the Constitution's guarantee to a right to privacy invalidates a Connecticut statute banning use of contraceptives by married couples, a law enacted by a government composed largely of adherents to the Roman Catholic faith, which has always held birth control to be a sin worthy of eternal punishment. "Comstock-era" laws are likewise now moot in other states. In 1972, the Court rules that the protections must be applied to unmarried couples as well.[209][210][211]
June 11: International Poetry Incarnation: Notables including Allen Ginsberg, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz, and William S. Burroughs participate in a breakthrough event for the UK underground, Royal Albert Hall, London.[8]: 98 [212]
June 11: The Beatles are appointed as Members of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE) by Queen Elizabeth for their contributions to British arts and commerce. The myth that the group smoked marijuana in a Palace bathroom after the investiture ceremony in October is later debunked by George Harrison.[213]
July 25: Bob Dylan "goes electric" and is booed by some attendees at the Newport Folk Festival.[214] The musicians accompanying him would later form the 1960s/1970s roots rock group The Band.
July 30: Medicare is signed into law in the U.S., giving senior citizens the ability to afford health care, without worrying about being dependent upon children or losing their assets.
August: Phil Ochs releases the satirical "Draft Dodger Rag" on the album I Ain't Marching Anymore. He later performs the song on the CBS News special Avoiding the Draft. Pete Seeger's version appears in 1966.[215][deprecated source]
August 6: The Voting Rights Act is signed into law in the U.S.; "Literacy tests", poll taxes and other local schemes to prevent voting by blacks are newly or further banned under Federal law.
August 11: Watts: Six days of massive race riots erupt in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles. 34 die, 1000 are injured, hundreds of buildings are looted or destroyed, and thousands of people are arrested. Meanwhile, smaller riots occur in Chicago.[216]
August 24: She Said She Said: Shortly after setting a concert attendance record at Shea Stadium, Queens, New York, the Beatles briefly rest in Benedict Canyon in Los Angeles, near the end of their grueling American tour. With ongoing Beatlemania preventing the band from leaving their rented home, they invite local company, including members of the Byrds, Peter Fonda, Joan Baez, and Peggy Lipton. An LSD trip inspires John Lennon to write a song, which appears on Revolver in 1966. As the era progresses, nearby Laurel Canyon becomes home to many prominent counterculture musicians.[217][218][219][220]
August 30: Bob Dylan's Highway 61 Revisited is released, featuring the six-minute single "Like a Rolling Stone".[221]
August 31: Destruction of draft cards becomes formally prohibited by U.S. law.[222]
September 5: The word hippie is used in print by San Francisco writer Michael Fallon, helping popularise use of the term in the media. However, the term had appeared earlier, eg. in a remark about marijuana cookies by syndicated journalist Dorothy Kilgallen in her June 11, 1963, column.[223][224]
September 8: Actress Dorothy Dandridge, the first African-American nominated for a Best Actress Oscar, dies of an apparent accidental prescription drug overdose in Los Angeles, although a later analysis suggests a rare embolism may have been the cause.[225][226]
September 15: I-Spy: Comedian Bill Cosby becomes the first African-American to star in a dramatic American television series. (Amanda Randolph had starred in the comedy The Laytons on the short-lived DuMont Network in the late 1940s.)[227]
September 25: The Beatles Saturday morning cartoon series debuts on U.S. television, aimed at an audience of children.[228]
September 25: Eve of Destruction: Barry McGuire's version of P.F. Sloan's work becomes the first protest song to hit No. 1 in the charts. However, it draws heavy criticism and is banned by numerous radio stations.[229][230]
October: The Yardbirds, featuring Jeff Beck, release the single "Shapes of Things" with the B-side "Still I'm Sad." By this, psychedelic rock first makes the charts.[231]
October 1: The East Village Other begins publication in East Village, Manhattan, New York City.[232]
October 15–16: Vietnam War protests in cities across the U.S. draw 100,000.
October 16: A Tribute to Dr. Strange: Dan Hicks helps organize a Family Dog event where 1,000 original San Francisco "hippies" party en masse at Longshoreman's Hall. Still yet to be prohibited by Federal or state law, Owsley's "White Lightning" acid (LSD) is made available to all.[233][234]
November: The Autobiography of Malcolm X is published posthumously by Grove Press. Derived from interviews of the slain activist by writer Alex Haley, it is considered to be one of the most influential works of non-fiction of the 20th century. Doubleday's cancellation of its original contract for the bestseller is later viewed by critics as the biggest mistake in publishing history.[235][236][237]
November 2: Quaker leader Norman Morrison self-immolates at the Pentagon to protest the war. Secretary of Defense McNamara witnesses the scene from his office in the building.[238][239]
November 5: My Generation: The Who speak to the new youth. "This is my generation!" and "I hope I die before I get old" become mantras of the rising counterculture.[240][241]
November 9: Catholic peace activist Roger Allen LaPorte self-immolates at the United Nations building in New York City.[242]
November 19: Fifth Estate: The first issue of the long-running anti-authoritarian newspaper is published in Detroit.[243]
November 20: 8,000 anti-war protesters march from Berkeley to Oakland in California.
November 27: Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters hold the first "Acid Test" at Soquel, California.[244]
November 27: Up to 35,000 anti-war protesters march in front of the White House.
November 30: Unsafe at Any Speed: Activist attorney Ralph Nader's wake-up call concerning automotive safety is published and fuels the modern Consumer Movement. Nader's ongoing work contributes to the passage of the U.S. National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966. In 1972 alone, annual American highway deaths peak at 54,589, approaching the total number of war dead during the entire duration of U.S. combat involvement in Vietnam.[245][246][247]
December: California Dreamin': A westward clarion call is released by The Mamas and the Papas.[248]
December: The Pretty Things release Get the Picture?. The album includes a song entitled £.S.D.[249]
December 3: The Beatles' Rubber Soul is released in the United Kingdom with a visually distorted image of the group on the cover.[250] The album contains "Norwegian Wood", which sparks the "great sitar explosion" in pop music.[251]
December 23: Timothy Leary is arrested for drug possession at the U.S.-Mexico border.[252]
1966
January 8: 2,400 attend when the "Acid Tests" arrive at the Fillmore West nightclub in San Francisco.[253][254]
January 21–23: Chet Helms' Family Dog "Trips Festival" is attended by 10,000 in San Francisco; half are reputedly under the influence of LSD.[255][256][257][258]
February 10: Valley of the Dolls: Jacqueline Susann's best-selling novel of sex and the perils of prescription drug abuse by women is published.[259][260]
March 8: London Free School is launched by John "Hoppy" Hopkins and Rhaune Laslett, leading to the start of the International Times/IT, the UFO Club and the Notting Hill Carnival as a street party featuring some of the earliest performances of Pink Floyd.[261]
March 11: Timothy Leary is sentenced to 30 years for his 1965 Mexican border drug offense.[262]
March 14: Eight Miles High: The Byrds' psychedelic 12-string-electric guitar anthem is released and briefly banned on radio due to perceived drug-culture subject matter.[263][264][265]
March 16: 12 Australians burn their draft cards at a Sydney rally against Australia's participation in the Vietnam War.[266][267]
March 25–27: Anti-Vietnam War demonstrations take place in many cities across America and around the world.
April: What a Drag it is Getting Old: "Mother's Little Helper", the Rolling Stones' single about prescription pill-popping housewives, is released in Great Britain. "Doctor Robert", the Beatles' similar nod to a liberally prescribing physician, appears in June.[268][269]
April 5: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration warns about the danger of LSD in a letter sent to some 2,000 universities.
April 7: Sandoz, the sole legitimate manufacturer of pharmaceutical-grade LSD, stops supplying the drug to researchers.[270][271]
April 17: Millbrook: Under the auspices of then-prosecutor G. Gordon Liddy, Timothy Leary is arrested for possession of marijuana at his upstate New York retreat, a haven of East Coast hippie activity. Liddy cannot, however, prosecute Leary for possessing LSD, which is still legal.[272][273][274]
May 7: Psychedelic bellwether "Paint It Black" is released in the U.S. by the Rolling Stones.[275][276]
May 12: Students take over the administration building at the University of Chicago in protest against the draft.[277]
May 15: 10,000 anti-war protesters picket the White House.
May 16: The Beach Boys release the highly influential album Pet Sounds.[278][279]
May 18: 10,000 students rally against the draft at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
May 29: The phrase "Black Power" re-emerges among contenders for Civil Rights.[280]
May 30: Featuring reversed sounds for the first time on a pop music recording, the Beatles' psychedelic "Rain" is released as the B-side of "Paperback Writer".[281]
May/June: Resurgence magazine is first published in the United Kingdom. Notable contributors will include E. F. Schumacher, Ivan Illich, R. D. Laing and The Dalai Lama.[282][283]
June 4: The New York Times publishes a petition to end the Vietnam War, containing 6,400 signatures, including many prominent scholars and clergy.[284]
June 10: After appearing in a television documentary in January, Donovan is arrested in London for possession of cannabis, and is perhaps the first notable counterculture musician to be targeted in the growing war on drugs. The incident is later derided as "ridiculous" and "comical".[285][286]
June 13: Miranda v. Arizona: The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution provides protection against self-incrimination, thus requiring Federal, state, and local law enforcement officials to advise a suspect interrogated while in custody of the right to remain silent and the right to obtain an attorney.[287]
June 25: Lenny Bruce performs for the last time. The show at the Fillmore West in San Francisco also showcases Frank Zappa.[288]
June 27: Freak Out!, a pioneer concept album, is released by Frank Zappa's Mothers of Invention.[289]
June 30: The National Organization of Women (NOW) is founded in Washington, D.C.[290]
June 30: In their tour press conference in Tokyo, the Beatles speak out publicly against the Vietnam War for the first time, defying their manager Brian Epstein's insistence that they remain apolitical.[291] During the band's subsequent American tour, in August, George Harrison says: "War is wrong, and it's obvious it's wrong. And that's all that needs to be said about it."[292]
July: Beatle backlash: Some American disc jockeys in the Southern and Midwestern U.S., responding to pressure by conservative religious groups hostile to the counterculture, incite thousands to burn Beatles records after John Lennon uttered a comment claiming that his band was "more popular than Jesus."[293]
July: Sunshine Superman: Donovan's hit contains the first open reference to "tripping" in a chart-topping song.[294]
July: After skipping an invitation to a breakfast reception from Philippines' dictators Ferdinand & Imelda Marcos, the Beatles find themselves stranded without police protection and in fear for their lives. John Lennon states that "if we go back, it will be with an H-Bomb."[295]
July 16: Wes Wilson's rock concert poster for The Association, playing at the Fillmore, is the first significant psychedelic rock concert poster,[296] after which many follow for other concerts, and the style becomes significant.
July 29: Bob Dylan crashes his motorcycle near Woodstock, New York, and begins a period of much-needed retreat from public life.[297]
July–September: Riots break out throughout the summer in several American cities, with deaths in Chicago and Cleveland (July), Waukegan, Illinois, and Benton Harbor, Michigan (August), and damage in many other cities.
August 3: Lenny Bruce, called "the most radically relevant of all contemporary social satirists" is found dead at age 40 from a morphine overdose in Los Angeles.[298]
August 5: The Beatles release their album Revolver, which includes "Tomorrow Never Knows", a song that came to be widely regarded as "the most effective evocation of a LSD experience ever recorded".[299] The track is founded on a single-chord tambura drone and features tape loops, backward sounds and other musique concrète elements, and lyrics taken from Timothy Leary's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead.[300][301]
August 29: Candlestick Park: The Beatles perform their final concert in San Francisco, before retiring from live performances.[302]
September 9: LSD is banned in Great Britain.[8]: 125
September 12: An American television program debuts in response to the Beatles' popularlity, The Monkees, on NBC. In 1967, the band outsells the Beatles and the Rolling Stones combined, far exceeding creator Don Kirshner's expectations.[303]
September 19: Timothy Leary begins his "Turn on, tune in, drop out" crusade in New York City, founding a de facto religion centered around LSD titled "League for Spiritual Discovery".
September 20: Anti-establishment publisher Allen Cohen's underground newspaper The San Francisco Oracle begins publication in the Haight-Ashbury district.
October 6: The use and sale of LSD is formally prohibited in the U.S.[304]
October 6: Love Pageant Rally: A gathering of hippies, including many notable Haight-Ashbury luminaries is held in San Francisco, marking the LSD ban. The Grateful Dead and Janis Joplin perform for free. Despite the Federal ban, the illicit manufacture and use of LSD continues.[305][306]
October 10: Good Vibrations: The Beach Boys release Brian Wilson and Mike Love's psychedelic tour de force.[307]
October 15: The Black Panther Party is established by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California.[308][309][310]
November 9: Beatle John Lennon first meets avant-garde Japanese artist and future wife Yoko Ono at London's Indica Gallery.[311]
November 12: For What It's Worth: The Sunset Strip teen curfew riots in West Hollywood, California inspire Stephen Stills to pen a protest song for his rock group Buffalo Springfield.[312][313][314]
December 8: MGM releases the British film Blow-Up without approval of the movie ratings group MPAA, signalling the beginning of the end of enforcement of the Hays Code. In late 1968, the MPAA institutes the first voluntary system of movie ratings, intended as a guide for viewers as to a film's content and age-appropriateness.[315]
December 17: Diggers "Death of Money" happening on Haight Street. Two Hells Angels who join the action are arrested, and a large crowd marches to the police station in spontaneous protest.[316][317][318]
December 23 & 30: UFO Club, London's first psychedelic nightclub, opens. Hoppy and Joe Boyd hire an Irish venue, The Blarney Club, on Tottenham Court Road, bringing the sound/light show of Pink Floyd and Soft Machine to the West End.[8]: 128 [319]
December 30: Hoppy's London flat is raided. Hoppy and four others are arrested for possession of marijuana.[320]: 190
1967
January 12: LSD is the subject of the debut "Blue Boy" episode of the topical, but square and sermon-laden television police drama Dragnet '67.[321] The program is a revival of a popular 1950s show and incessantly promotes the need for "law and order" in American life. Jack Webb, who portrays a middle-aged detective and produces the program, parlays the show's success among conservative and patriotic audiences into several other successful programs in the 1970s.
January 14: Human Be-In: "The joyful, face-to-face beginning of the new epoch" is held in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. 20,000 attend.[322]
January 28: The Million Volt Light and Sound Rave: The Beatles contribute a to-date unreleased experimental "sound collage" for early raves at the Round House Theatre, London.[323]
January 29: The Mantra-Rock Dance is held at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco. The Hare Krishna religion is promoted, and the Grateful Dead, Big Brother and the Holding Company and Moby Grape perform. Ginsberg, Leary and Owsley attend.[324][325]
February: Surrealistic Pillow by Jefferson Airplane is released. Grace Slick becomes the first major female rock music performer. Psilocybin mushrooms are visible on the album cover. Tracks include "White Rabbit", and "D.C.B.A.-25", referring to the song's chords and LSD-25.[326]
February: Noam Chomsky's anti-Vietnam War essay The Responsibility of Intellectuals is published in The New York Review of Books.[327]
February 5: The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour debuts on CBS television and soon pushes the boundaries of acceptable broadcast content to the limit.[328]
February 10: A Day in the Life: The Beatles stage a gathering of rock and other celebrities including Donovan, Keith Richards, Mick Jagger, Mike Nesmith and Pattie Boyd to observe the recording of the final orchestral overdubs for Sgt. Pepper at Abbey Road Studios in London.[329]
February 11: New York disc jockey Bob Fass uses the airwaves to inspire an impromptu gathering of thousands at Kennedy Airport, in what is later called a "prehistoric flash mob".[330][331]
February 13: The Beatles issue John Lennon's psychedelic masterwork "Strawberry Fields Forever" as part of a double A-side with "Penny Lane". Either the words "Cranberry sauce" or "I buried Paul" is heard after the song fades out, something disputed fiercely by listeners.[332]
February 14: London's first Macrobiotic Restaurant run by Craig Sams opens at Centre House and also supplies food to the UFO Club.[333]: 141
February 17: The cover of Life Magazine features Ed Sanders of The Fugs below "HAPPENINGS – The worldwide underground of the arts creates – THE OTHER CULTURE."[334]
February 22: MacBird! opens at the Village Gate in New York City and runs for 386 performances. The controversial play compares Lyndon Johnson to Shakespeare's Macbeth, who caused the death of his predecessor.[335]
March 26: 10,000 attend the New York City "Be-In" in Central Park.[336]
April 4: Beyond Vietnam: Martin Luther King Jr. delivers a monumental anti-war speech.[337]
April 8–10: Race riots break out in Nashville, Tennessee. Activist Stokely Carmichael and Allen Ginsberg are present.[338]
April 15: National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam: An estimated 400,000 protest the escalating Vietnam War in New York City, marching from Central Park to UN Headquarters. Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, Benjamin Spock, and Stokely Carmichael speak. 75,000 assemble in San Francisco where Coretta Scott King speaks.[339]
April 28: Boxing champion Muhammad Ali refuses induction into the U.S. Army in Houston, Texas, on the grounds that he is a conscientious objector to the war in Vietnam.[340]
April 29: The 14 Hour Technicolor Dream: Pink Floyd featuring Syd Barrett headlines for 7,000 attending a groundbreaking televised psychedelic rave to promote love and peace at Alexandra Palace, London.[261][341]
May: The radical left-wing underground newspaper Seed begins publication in Chicago.[342]
May 2: Armed Black Panthers led by Bobby Seale enter the chambers of the California State Assembly in Sacramento, protesting a bill to outlaw open carry of loaded firearms. Seale and five others are arrested.[343]
May 5: Mr. Natural: Robert Crumb's soon-to-be ubiquitous underground comix counterculture icon makes his first appearance in the premiere issue of Yarrowstalks.[344]
May 10: Rolling Stone Brian Jones is arrested for drug possession. He is arrested again in 1968. Jones' conviction record renders him largely unable to tour outside of Great Britain.[345]
May 15–17: Student protesters confront police at the historically African-American Texas Southern University in Houston, resulting in the death of a police officer and over 400 arrests.[346]
May 20–21: The Spring Mobilization Conference is held in Washington, D.C. Seven hundred anti-war activists gather to discuss the April 15 protests, and to plan future demonstrations.[347]
June: Vietnam Veterans Against the War is formed in New York City.[348]
June–July: Race riots create upheaval in cities across the U.S.[349]
June–September: The "Summer of Love" in Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco and recognition of the hippie movement.[350][351]
June 1: The Beatles' Sgt Pepper is released and widely recognized as the high-water mark of the brief psychedelic rock era. Some critics would, years later, rate it as the greatest rock album of all time.[352][353]
June 10–11: Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival: The Summer of Love kicks off at Mount Tamalpais, Marin County, California. Over 30,000 see the Byrds, Doors, Jefferson Airplane, Country Joe & the Fish, and dozens of other acts perform in the first rock festival gathering of its kind.[354][355]
June 12: The U.S. Supreme Court, in Loving v. Virginia, rules that state laws prohibiting interracial marriage are unconstitutional.[356]
June 16: Paul McCartney is the first Beatle to publicly discuss LSD use. Quotes from a British magazine are re-published in a Life Magazine article entitled "The New Far-Out Beatles." McCartney is interviewed on film concerning the controversy on the 19th.[357][358]
June 16–18: The Monterey Pop Festival in Monterey, California, organized principally by John Phillips of The Mamas and the Papas, draws thousands and is the first large, extended festival of the rock era. Jimi Hendrix returns from the U.K. and makes his U.S. "debut." David Crosby uses his time at the microphone to brashly condemn the Warren Report.[359][360]
June 25: The Beatles' contribute a performance of their summer U.K. hit All You Need Is Love to the first live global satellite TV broadcast, reaching an estimated 200–400 million people worldwide via the BBC.[361][362]
July 7: The cover of Time features "The Hippies: The Philosophy of a Subculture."[363]
July 15–30: Dialectics of Liberation Congress: A gathering of leftist intellectuals in London finds itself on the receiving end of a prank, when Digger Emmett Grogan delivers a speech to rousing applause. The audience then becomes irate when Grogan reveals that his words are culled entirely from a 1937 speech by Adolf Hitler. The episode later inspires a scene in the fictional 1971 cult film Billy Jack.[364]
July 16: Hyde Park Rally: 5,000 gather in London to protest "immoral in principle and unworkable in practice" British marijuana laws. A petition signed by many notables is published.[365][366]
July 23–27: Detroit Riots: An arrest made on an early Sunday morning at a party where illegal liquor is sold provokes a youngster on a street outside to call for massive resistance to law enforcement, rapidly releasing years of aggravating tension between Detroit's Black community and the city's mostly White police force and local leaders. Within hours, the incident erupts into the worst outbreak of urban lawlessness of the century to date: 43 deaths, 467 injuries, over 7,200 arrests, and the burning of over 2,000 buildings to the ground.[367]
August 27: Death of Brian Epstein: the man credited with "discovering" the Beatles, their manager and friend, dies of a prescription drug overdose in London at age 32.[368][369]
September 17: The Doors perform their hit "Light My Fire" on The Ed Sullivan Show, but fail to remove the perceived drug term "higher" from the lyric as instructed by producers.[370]
September 30: Hip Radio 1 commences broadcast over the legitimate airwaves of the BBC following the U.K. ban on offshore "pirate" radio transmissions.[371]
September: 18-year-old folk singer-songwriter Arlo Guthrie releases the 18-minute song Alice's Restaurant Massacree.[372] It becomes a staple of FM rock radio every Thanksgiving afterward.
October 2: 710 Ashbury Street: Members of the Grateful Dead and others are busted for drug possession when their communal home is targeted and raided in San Francisco.[373]
October 6: The "Death of Hippie" march is held in Haight-Ashbury by the Diggers as a mock funeral meant to signal the end of the Summer of Love and stop further commercialization of the hippie movement.[374]
October 9: Death of Che Guevara: The Argentine revolutionary is executed in Bolivia.[375]
October 17: Stop the Draft Week: Demonstrators attack the U.S. Army Induction Center in Oakland, California. Singer Joan Baez is among those arrested. Some are charged with sedition.[376][377][378]
October 17: Hair: a timely stage play featuring controversial full-frontal nudity premieres to mature audiences off-Broadway in New York City. The play becomes a Broadway smash in 1968.[379]
October 19: Thousands of students clash with police at Brooklyn College in New York after two military recruiters appear on campus. Students strike the following day.[380]
October 20–21: "Mobe's" March on the Pentagon: 100,000 protest the war in Washington, D.C. Jerry Rubin, Abbie Hoffman and others lead attempts at "exorcism" and levitation of the Pentagon.[381][382]
October 27: Baltimore Four: Catholic priest Philip Berrigan and three others are jailed after pouring blood on conscription files in the SSS office, protesting the bloodshed in Vietnam. Berrigan is later convicted.[383]
October 28: Black Panther leader Huey Newton is stopped by Oakland police. A shootout resulting in the death of an officer leads to Newton's conviction, which is later overturned.[384][385]
November 9: Rolling Stone Magazine: John Lennon is featured on the cover of the first issue in a photo from the film How I Won The War. Rolling Stone becomes a focal point for news and reviews aimed at young people during the era, and continues to the present day.[386]
November 10: Disraeli Gears: Cream's quintessential psychedelic rock album is released.[387]
November 10: The Moody Blues' masterpiece Days of Future Passed, featuring psychedelic themes and the London Festival Orchestra, is released.[388]
November 20: Police, using tear gas, charge a large student demonstration against corporate recruiters for napalm manufacturer Dow Chemical at San Jose State College in California.[389]
November 24: I Am the Walrus: The Beatles release John Lennon's psychedelic coda. The album Magical Mystery Tour is released on November 27.[390]
December 4–8: Anti-war groups across the U.S. attempt to shut down draft board centers. Dr. Benjamin Spock and poet Allen Ginsberg are among the 585 arrested in association with the initiative.
December 10: Monterey Pop Fest stand-out and soon-to-be soul legend Otis Redding dies in a plane crash at age 26.[391]
December 22: Owsley Stanley is found in possession of 350,000 doses of LSD and 1,500 doses of STP, arrested, and sentenced to three years in prison.
December 31: Yippies: "Yippie" is coined by radicals Jerry Rubin, Abbie Hoffman, Anita Hoffman, Dick Gregory, Nancy Kurshan and Paul Krassner. In January, the Youth International Party is formed. Inspired by the Diggers, the humorous Yippies also take the counterculture protest movement into the realm of performance theater.[392]
Originally a surgical anesthetic, PCP begins to appear as a recreational drug.[393][394]
1968
Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test is published.[395]
January: Owsley-inspired pioneer heavy metal rock band Blue Cheer release Vincebus Eruptum, while early metal ground-breakers Iron Butterfly release their debut, Heavy.[396][397]
January 22: Laugh-In: The sketch comedy "phenomenon that both reflected and mocked the era's counterculture" and brought it into "mainstream living rooms" debuts on American television, on the NBC network.[398][399]
January 31: The Tet Offensive is launched by the North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong (sympathizers of the North in South Vietnam). Western forces are victorious on the battlefield, but press coverage, especially that by television, begins to turn public opinion against American military operations there.[400][401]
February 1: Following the free-form programming experimentations at KFRC-FM in San Francisco, WABX-FM in Detroit and some other stations nationwide begin to officially change their formats. FM playlists and other content are increasingly chosen by local disc jockeys, instead of corporate executives or record companies. The Progressive Rock format takes hold.[402]
February 4: Beat figure and Merry Prankster Neal Cassady dies in Mexico of unknown causes at age 41.[403]
February 8: Orangeburg Massacre: Police fire on and kill three people protesting segregation at a South Carolina bowling alley.[404]
February 15: The Beatles in India: All four Beatles, along with fellow devotees such as Mike Love, Donovan and Mia Farrow, journey to Rishikesh in India to study Transcendental Meditation under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. John Lennon and George Harrison are the last of the celebrities to leave; they depart amid unsubstantiated rumors of the Maharishi's sexual impropriety toward some of the female students[405] and the band members' suspicions that he was using their fame for self-promotion.[406]
February 29: Kerner Report: The Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders is released after seven months of investigation into American urban rioting, and states that "our nation is moving towards two societies, one black, one white – separate and unequal."[407][408]
March 16: My Lai Massacre in Vietnam. An apparently wanton rape and murder of civilians by American soldiers creates an enormous new anti-war outcry when the incident becomes public knowledge in 1969.[409][410][411]
March 17: London police stop 10,000 anti-war marchers from violently storming the U.S. Embassy. Two hundred persons are arrested. The protest serves as partial inspiration for the Rolling Stones' most notable political foray, "Street Fighting Man".[412][413][414]
March 18: RFK In: U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy (D-New York), a long-time supporter of American policy in Vietnam, speaks out against the war for the first time, and announces his candidacy for president.[415]
March 22: 3,000 Yippies take over Grand Central Station in New York City, staging a "Yip-In" that ultimately results in what was then termed an "extraordinary display of unprovoked police brutality" and 61 arrests.[416][417][418]
March 31: LBJ Out: Embattled President Lyndon Johnson addresses the public about Vietnam on prime-time television and shocks the nation with his closing remark that, in order to focus on the war effort, he would forego pursuing a second elected term as president. The national political culture is thrown into chaos as a result.[419]
Spring: Reggae: "Nanny Goat" by Larry Marshall, and Do the Reggay by Toots and the Maytals mark the arrival of a new musical genre to American shores.[420][421] Johnny Nash ("Hold Me Tight"), and Paul McCartney ("Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da") are inspired by the Jamaican sound.[422]
March–May: Columbia University protests occur in New York City. "Up Against the Wall Motherf*ckers" becomes a protest slogan at this time, as well as the name of a radical activist group.[423]
April: The U.S. Department of Defense begins calling-up reservists for duty in Vietnam. The Supreme Court turns down a challenge to that mobilization in October.[424]
April 4: MLK Assassinated: The Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. is assassinated on the balcony of a Memphis, Tennessee motel while in the city to assist a sanitation workers' strike. James Earl Ray, a St. Louis, Missouri-area native who had no permanent residence, is soon arrested for the murder. The King family later expresses complete doubt as to Ray's guilt.[425] Violence erupts in cities across the nation, with thousands of Federal troops dispatched. Memphis, Chicago, Baltimore, Kansas City, and Washington, D.C., in particular experience strong rioting.[426]
April 5: A Yippie plot to disrupt the upcoming Democratic National Convention in Chicago in August is reported by Time.[427]
April 6: Oakland Shootout: Black Panther Bobby Hutton is killed, and another, Eldridge Cleaver, is wounded in a gun battle with police. Cleaver later claims that Hutton was murdered while in police custody.[428]
April 8: The U.S. Bureau of Narcotics (Treasury Department) and Bureau of Drug Abuse Control (of the Food and Drug Administration) merge into the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, substantially ramping up efforts to rid the country of illegal substances.[429]
April 14: The Easter Sunday "Love-In" is held in Malibu Canyon in California.[430]
April 27: Anti-war protesters march in several American cities, including 87,000 in New York City's Central Park.
May: The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers first appear in The Rag, an Austin, Texas underground paper.[431][432]
May 2: MAI 68: Massive student protests erupt in France which escalate and spread, leading to a general strike and widespread civil unrest during May and June, bringing the country to a virtual standstill.[433]
May 10: The Paris Peace Talks commence in France, with the war in Southeast Asia the subject of the negotiations.[434][435][436]
May 12: Martin Luther King's Poor People's Campaign establishes "Resurrection City", a shanty town on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., which around 5,000 protesters occupy.
May 17: Catonsville Nine: Catholic priests opposed to the war, including Daniel Berrigan, destroy records at a Maryland draft office.[437][438][439]
May 24–27: Louisville Riots: After a claim of police brutality, police and thousands of National Guard in Kentucky confront rioting protesters and looters. Two Black teenagers die before order is restored.[440]
June 3: Artist Andy Warhol is shot and wounded by a self-described "radical feminist" writer.[441][442][443]
June 5: RFK Assassinated: Senator Robert Francis Kennedy, winner of the California Democratic Presidential Primary earlier that day, and the new presumptive front-runner in that hotly contested race, is mortally wounded at a hotel in Los Angeles during a victory party. He dies June 6.[444]
June 19: A "Solidarity Day" protest at Resurrection City draws 55,000 participants.
June 24: Remnants of "Resurrection City," with only some 300 protesters still remaining, are razed by riot police.
July 17: The Beatles' post-psychedelic, pop-art animated film Yellow Submarine is released in the U.K. (November 13 in the U.S.).[445][446]
July 28–30: The University of California, Berkeley campus is shut down entirely by protests.
August 21: Prague Spring: Communist tanks roll into Czechoslovakia and crush the popular anti-Soviet uprising which began in January.[447]
August 25–29: Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The proceedings are overshadowed by massive protests staged by thousands of demonstrators of every political or social stripe.[448] Mayor Daley's desire to enforce rigid order in the city prompts local police to deal with the mostly peaceful protestors violently, a scene televised on national airwaves alongside the convention's proceedings. On the third night, police indiscriminately attack protesters and bystanders, including journalists Mike Wallace and Dan Rather and Playboy publisher Hugh Hefner. The next night police attack anti-war protesters in front of the Conrad Hilton Hotel as demonstrators chant "The whole world is watching". The spectacle amounts to a turning point for both supporters and critics of the larger movement.
August 26: Revolution?: Lennon's B-side to McCartney's smash "Hey Jude" is released. Its eschewing of violent protest is seen as a betrayal by some on the left. A version recorded earlier is released in November and suggests indecision as to Lennon's stance on violence.[449]
August 31: First Isle of Wight Festival featuring Jefferson Airplane, Arthur Brown, The Move, T-Rex and The Pretty Things takes place in Great Britain.
September 7: Miss America Protest: Feminists demonstrate against what they call "The Degrading Mindless-Boob-Girlie Symbol," filling a "freedom trash can" with housekeeping items such as mops, pots and pans, copies of Cosmopolitan and Playboy magazines, false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras. The widely reported "burning of bras," despite not being substantiated by eyewitness evidence, becomes a potent urban legend for the burgeoning "women's lib" movement.[450][451]
September 24: The Mod Squad: "One Black, One White, One Blonde" is the tagline for a hip, troubled-kids-turned-cops television police drama, which debuts on this date on ABC.[452] It runs until 1973.
September 28: Ten thousand people in Chicago protest on the one-month anniversary of the Convention violence.
Fall: Stewart Brand begins publication of The Whole Earth Catalog.[453][454]
October 2: Tlatelolco massacre: Students and police violently clash in Mexico City.[455]
October 16: Mexico '68: Medal-winning American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos raise their gloved hands on the Olympic award podium to protest global human rights shortcomings. Their demonstration is met with both international praise and death threats alike, a sign of the polarization that is occurring among Americans outside youth and left-wing circles.[456][457]
October 18: John Lennon and Yoko Ono are arrested for drug possession in London. Lennon is only fined for his first offence, and more serious obstruction charges against the pair are dropped, but the arrest will later serve as a pretext for a politically motivated attempted deportation of Lennon from the U.S. in the 1970s.[458]
October 25: Emile de Antonio's highly controversial and Oscar nominated anti-war documentary In the Year of the Pig (per the Chinese "Year of the Pig") is released. Although it is otherwise reported, as de Antonio aspires to the leftist badge of honor, he never actually appears on President Nixon's Enemies List.[459][460][461]
October 27: Twenty-five thousand march in London against the Vietnam War, and particularly British participation in it.[462]
October 31: President Johnson orders a halt to the aerial bombing of North Vietnam.[463][464]
November 5: Former Vice President Richard Milhous Nixon, who served during the Administration of Dwight David Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961, defeats both the sitting Vice President Hubert Humphrey and the far-right George Wallace/Curtis Lemay independent ticket in a close race. Nixon in January becomes the 37th president of the United States, ending eight years of Democratic Party control of the White House.[465][466]
November 6: Head: The Monkees delve into psychedelia in an ambitious but unpromoted and little-seen film co-written and co-produced by Jack Nicholson.[467][468]
November 6: Students demanding minority studies courses begin a strike at San Francisco State College, where demonstrations and clashes last into March 1969, making it the longest student strike in American history.[469][470][471]
November 11: Two Virgins: John Lennon and Yoko Ono's experimental album is released. Beatles distributors EMI (for Parlophone/Gramophone labels) and Capitol (for the group's Apple vanity label) refuse distribution of the recording, as the cover features the couple with no clothes on at all. Lennon later describes the cover, considered obscene by general American moral standards of the time, as a "depiction of two slightly overweight ex-junkies."[472][473][474]
November 22: The Beatles' self-titled double album, also known as the "White Album," is released. Band members grow their hair very long, and the musical content moves away from psychedelia.[475]
December 24: Earthrise: A striking photograph of the Earth taken by Bill Anders of Apollo 8 from lunar orbit is called "the most influential environmental photograph ever taken."[476]
1969
January 8–18: Students at Brandeis University occupy Ford and Sydeman Halls, demanding creation of an Afro-American department, which is approved by the University on April 24.[477]
January 28: Santa Barbara Oil Spill: The environmental movement moves into high gear after an offshore oil well blows out and dumps 100,000 barrels of crude oil onto the California coast, killing wildlife and fouling beaches for years to come.[478]
January 29: Sir George Williams Computer Riot: the largest student campus occupation in Canadian history results in millions of dollars in damage in Montreal.[479]
January 30: Let it Be: The Beatles, plus Billy Preston, perform in public as a group for the last time on the roof atop their offices in London. Footage of the performance appears on the film documenting the sessions for the album.[480]
January 30 – February 15: The Administration building of University of Chicago is taken over by around 400 student protesters in a "sit-in".
February: Esquire Magazine features a cover story declaring: "Chicks Up Front! How Troublemakers Use Girls to Put Down the Cops" and other tactics of the radical left.[481]
February 13: National Guard troops, armed with tear gas and riot sticks, crush demonstrations at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.[482]
February 16: After three days of clashes between police and Duke University students in North Carolina, the school agrees to establish a Black Studies program.
February 24: Tinker v. Des Moines: The U.S. Supreme court affirms public school students' First Amendment rights to protest the Vietnam War.[483]
March 1: Do You Want to See My Cock?: Arrest warrants are issued for Doors frontman Jim Morrison after he allegedly exposes himself and simulates masturbation and fellatio at a concert in Miami, Florida. In 2010, Morrison is posthumously pardoned by the state's Clemency Board.[484][485]
March 12: George Harrison and Pattie Boyd are arrested for marijuana possession in London.[486]
March 22: President Nixon condemns trend of campus takeovers and violence.
March 25–31: Following their wedding at Gibraltar, John Lennon and Yoko Ono hold a "bed-in" peace event in Amsterdam.[487]
April: American troop strength in Vietnam peaks at over 543,000 military personnel.[488][489]
April 3–4: The National Guard is called into Chicago, and Memphis residents are placed on curfew on the first anniversary of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s assassination.
April 4: After a decline in ratings and ongoing pressure by advertisers and the general public over the program's highly controversial content, CBS cancels the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. Writers for the program, including Mason Williams, Carl Gottlieb, Bob Einstein, Rob Reiner, Steve Martin, and Pat Paulsen, move on to other projects.[490][491]
April 9: Three hundred students "sit-in" at offices of Harvard University protesting the presence of an ROTC program on campus. Four hundred policemen restore order on April 10. The university makes ROTC an extracurricular activity, rather than a mandatory curriculum, on April 19.
April 19: Armed Black students take over Willard Straight Hall at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. The university accedes to their demands the following day, promising an Afro-American studies program.
April 25–28: Activist students takeover Merrill House at Colgate University, demanding Afro-American studies programs.
May 7: Students at Howard University in Washington, D.C., a historically Black college, occupy eight buildings. The buildings are cleared by U.S. Marshals two days later.
May 8: City College of New York closes following a 14-day-long student takeover demanding minority studies; riots among students break out when CCNY tries to reopen.
May 9–11: Zip to Zap: Several thousand college students flock to a party event in rural North Dakota, which degenerates into a "riot" later dispersed by the National Guard.[492]
May 15: Bloody Thursday[broken anchor]: Alameda County Sheriff's deputies and National Guardsmen authorized by governor Ronald Reagan move to eject protestors deemed unlawful from the People's Park in Berkeley. Law enforcement and soldiers open fire with buckshot-loaded shotguns, mortally wounding student James Rector, permanently blinding carpenter Alan Blanchard, and inflicting lesser wounds on several others.[493]
May 21–25: 1969 Greensboro uprising: student protesters battle police for five days on campus of North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University; one student is killed on May 22. National Guardsmen assault the campus using tear gas, going so far as to drop it by helicopter.
May 23: Tommy: The Who's Rock Opera becomes one of the most celebrated albums of the era.[494]
May 26 – June 2: Give Peace a Chance: Celebrities gather as John and Yoko conduct their second bed-in in Montreal, where the anti-war anthem is recorded live.[495]
June: Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask) is published and becomes a bestseller.[496]
June 18: Students for a Democratic Society convenes in Chicago; the groups ousts its Progressive Labor Party faction on June 28, which, in turn, sets up its own rival convention.
June 22: Judy Garland, superstar of stage, screen, television, and song, and an early icon for the LGBT community, dies of an accidental barbiturate overdose in the Chelsea section of London.[497][498]
June 28: The Stonewall Riots in New York City, provoked by an erstwhile routine police raid, are the first major gay-rights uprisings in the U.S.[499]
July 3: Brian Jones, founder of the Rolling Stones, dies "by misadventure" in his swimming pool in East Sussex, England under undetermined circumstances at age 27.[500]
July 5: The Stones in the Park: Shocked by the overdose death of former bandmate Brian Jones, the grieving Rolling Stones continue with their much-anticipated free concert before a massive crowd at Hyde Park in London.[501][502]
July 14: Easy Rider: A low-budget, cocaine-dealing biker road movie is released and becomes a de facto cultural landmark. The film's success helps open doors for independent filmmakers during the 1970s. The soundtrack includes Steppenwolf's seminal ode to bikers, "Born to be Wild," and an early anti-drug dirge, "The Pusher."[503][504][505]
July 15: Cover story on LOOK: "How Hippies Raise their Children"[506]
July 18: Cover story on Life: "The Youth Communes – New Way of Living Confronts the U.S."[507]
July 20: Apollo 11's Apollo Lunar Module lands. Humans walk on the Moon. A plaque with the inscription "We Came in Peace for All Mankind" is left by the astronauts on the lunar surface.[508]
July 21: Andy Warhol's Blue Movie premieres at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre. The movie becomes a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn and helps inaugurate the "porno chic"[509][510] phenomenon in modern American culture, and later, in many other countries throughout the world.[511][512]
July 25: Vietnamization: The U.S. President's Nixon Doctrine calls on Asian regional allies, who were formerly guaranteed protection under treaty, to fend for themselves in non-nuclear conflicts. This ostensibly is part of a campaign directed at reducing domestic tension and violence at home.
August 9–10: Helter Skelter: Actress Sharon Tate, Tate's unborn baby, and five others are viciously murdered at knifepoint by cult members acting under the direction of psychopath Charles Manson during a two-day killing spree in California. The events shock an already-overwhelmed nation. As such, many see the crimes and Manson's "family" as products of the counterculture.[513][514][515][516]
August 15–18: Woodstock: An estimated 300,000–500,000 people gather in upstate New York for a festival of "3 Days of Peace & Music," a watershed event in American youth culture.[517][518]
August 19: Immediately following Woodstock, David Crosby, Stephen Stills, Joni Mitchell and Jefferson Airplane appear on the Dick Cavett Show. The Airplane's lyric "Up against the wall, motherf*ckers!" in the performance of its "We Can Be Together" slips past ABC censors and airs on national television.[519]
August 30–31: The Second Isle of Wight Festival attracts 150,000 people to see acts including Bob Dylan and The Band, The Who, Free, Joe Cocker, and the Moody Blues.
September: Penthouse: The first U.S. issue of Robert Guccione's explicit monthly magazine hits newsstands, and is later called "the adult magazine that wormed its way into the kinkier recesses of the libidinal subconscious and, arguably, did more to liberate puritan America from its deepest sexual taboos than any magazine before or since."[520]
September 1–2: Race rioting in Hartford, Connecticut and Camden, New Jersey takes place.
September 2: Ho Chi Minh, President of Communist North Vietnam, aggressor and prime mover of the Second Indochina War, dies. Ho's war rages on after his death, with his subjects refusing to be demoralized by the death.[521]
September 6: H.R. Pufnstuf: a highly novel, surreal Saturday morning children's show debuts on American television.[522]
September 24: The Chicago Eight trial commences. Rennie Davis, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin et al. face charges, including a conspiracy to incite riots during the 1968 Democratic National Convention. They become the Chicago Seven on November 5 after defendant Bobby Seale is bound, gagged, and severed from the proceedings.
September 29: "Okie from Muskogee": Country music legend Merle Haggard's song is a huge hit with rural, blue-collar, and religious Americans (primarily Southerners and Midwesterners) opposed to drug use among young people and the protest activities of the counterculture.[523][524] Personally, Haggard neither affirmed nor denied the perceived jingoistic and conservative politics contained within the lyrics during his lifetime.
October 4: Television personality Art Linkletter's daughter Diane, 20, jumps to her death from the sixth story of an apartment building. The elder Linkletter, an outspoken political conservative, claimed for years that Timothy Leary and LSD were responsible.[525]
October 8–11: Days of Rage: Elements of the SDS and the Weather Underground faction continue radical efforts to "bring the war home" in Chicago, and exchange brutalities with Chicago Police.[526]
October 15: Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam: Massive anti-war demonstrations occur across the U.S. and worldwide.
October 21: Jack Kerouac dies from complications of alcoholism in Florida at age 47.[527]
October 29: "login": The first message on the ARPANET – precursor to the internet and World Wide Web – is sent by UCLA student programmer Charley Kline.[528]
November 13: Vice President Spiro T. Agnew publicly criticizes the three mainstream television networks for a supposed bias against the Administration because they are perceived by him and President Nixon to hold sympathy with liberal and radical causes. That narrative developed steadily in American conservative circles over the next 50 years, eventually engendering by the 2000s a separate news culture, enabled mostly by technologies such as cable television and the internet that displaced traditional providers of American journalism.
November 15: Moratorium redux: over 500,000 march in Washington, D.C. It is the largest anti-war demonstration in American history.[529]
November 20: Native American protesters begin the Occupation of Alcatraz, which continues for 19 months.[530]
December: Total U.S. casualties (dead and seriously wounded) in Vietnam total some 100,000.
December 1: The first draft lottery in the U.S. since World War II is held in New York City and broadcast live on CBS television. Later statistical analysis indicates that the lottery method (birthdates in capsules pulled from a hand-rotated drum) is flawed, leaving certain birth dates more likely to be drawn than others.[531][532]
December 4: Black Panther Fred Hampton is killed by combined elements of Federal, Illinois, and Chicago law enforcement under circumstances which, to some, suggest political assassination.[533]
December 6: Altamont: The Rolling Stones help organize and headline at a free concert attended by 300,000. The event, intended as a "Woodstock West," devolves into chaos and the killing of one young person at a speedway between Tracy and Livermore, California.[534][535] Improper and capricious security enforcement by the Hells Angels is partly blamed for the incident.
December 27–31: Flint War Council, Michigan. The SDS is abolished, with the Weathermen becoming autonomous, and one of the most significant seditious revolts since the American Civil War emerges.[536]
Wavy Gravy's Hog Farm Hippie commune is established near Llano, New Mexico.
Friends of the Earth is founded in the U.S. It becomes an international network in 1971.
Making of a Counter Culture: Theodore Roszak's Reflections on the Technocratic Society is published. Roszak is later credited with coining the term "counterculture" in print.[537]
1970s
1970
President Nixon establishes the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The agency is activated in December 1970.
January 1: The voting age in Britain is lowered from 21 to 18.
January 10: Musician, hippie, and philanthropic margarine heir Michael J. Brody Jr. announces he will give away his fortune, which he reports to be between $25 and 50 million.[538][539][540]
January 31: Set Up, Like a Bowling Pin: Nineteen people, including members of the Grateful Dead and Owsley Stanley, are busted for drug possession in New Orleans. The episode makes the cover of Rolling Stone in March, and is later referred to in the Dead song "Truckin' ".[541][542]
February: Weather Underground carries out bombings and arson in the U.S. states of New York, California, Washington, Maryland, and Michigan.
February 18: The Chicago 7 verdicts are handed down: two are exonerated and five are soon sentenced for "crossing state lines with intent to incite a riot." However, all the convictions and sentences are later reversed.
February 23–26: Students riot at the University of California-Santa Barbara.
February 25–28: Students riot and occupy campus buildings at SUNY Buffalo, in New York state.
March 6: Greenwich Village townhouse explosion: Three members of the Weather Underground are killed while assembling a bomb in New York City.[543]
March 26: The documentary film Woodstock is released.
Late March: Fleetwood Mac founder Peter Green and bandmate Danny Kirwan get waylaid at a bizarre party at the Highfisch-Kommune cult/commune in Munich. After apparently taking LSD, both Green and Kirwan thereafter reportedly suffer from lifelong mental illness.[544][545]
April 1: Jerry Rubin guest appears on the Phil Donahue Show and lambastes Donahue on air for his conservative appearance.
April 7: California Governor Ronald Reagan is quoted on his views concerning college campus student unrest: "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with."[546]
April 7: An X-rated film, Midnight Cowboy, wins three Oscars, including Best Picture in Hollywood.[547][548]
April 10: Paul McCartney, when promoting his first solo album, announces that the Beatles have disbanded.
April 15: One hundred thousand persons gather on Boston Common to protest the Vietnam War; about 500 radicals attempt to seize the microphone, disrupting the event.
April 22: Earth Day: The first event recognizing the precarious environmental state of planet earth is held.[549][550] It is commemorated annually to this day.
April 30: President Nixon reveals secret American military operations in Cambodia, next door to Vietnam. That nation underwent a coup d'état in March when its monarch, accused by the military and conservative subjects of tolerating North Vietnamese and Viet Cong within its borders, was deposed by a renegade general, who initiates a civil war against Cambodian Communists, known as the Khmer Rouge, and the foreign occupants that lasts until 1975, when the KR overthrows the regime just days before the Fall of Saigon in Vietnam. America pledges its support to the authoritarian government of Lon Nol.
May 1–3: Thirteen thousand people take part in peaceful demonstrations at Yale University in support of defendants in the New Haven Black Panther trials.
May 2: Radicals among students at Kent State University in Ohio protesting the spread of the war into Cambodia burn the ROTC building to the ground. Governor Jim Rhodes calls in the National Guard at the request of Kent's mayor.[551]
May 4: In what becomes the greatest tragedy of the stateside anti-war protest movement and marks the beginning of the decline of the New Left in the United States, poorly trained soldiers of the Ohio National Guard are set loose into confrontation with – and open fire on – unarmed students at Kent State University, leaving four dead and nine wounded, including one man, Dean Kahler, who was paralyzed.[552]
May 4: Holding Together: A benefit for Timothy Leary is held at the Village Gate in New York City. Jimi Hendrix and Johnny Winter perform.[553][554]
May 5: The International Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty takes effect.
May 6: Student Strike of 1970: Many colleges across the U.S. shut down in protest against the continued American presence in Vietnam and the Kent State events.
May 8: Hard Hat Riot: Socially conservative construction workers, erstwhile loyal labor union members and supporters of liberal economic policies in past decades, confront anti-war demonstrators on Wall Street in New York City. They march again on May 11. On May 20, some 100,000 construction workers and longshoremen demonstrate in favor of Administration war policy at New York City Hall.[555]
May 8: Attempting to "rescue" his child from what he believes to be a hippie commune, a father, Arville Garland, murders his daughter Sandra and three others in their sleep in Detroit. The events are eerily similar to those depicted in the hippie-bashing film Joe, which was filmed prior to – but released after – the murders.[556][557]
May 9: 100,000 rally against the Vietnam War in Washington, D.C. At 4:15 a.m., President Nixon defies Secret Service forces and leaves the White House grounds to meet and talk with surprised protesters who are camping out at the Lincoln Memorial.[558][559][560]
May 14: Jackson State killings: Police kill two and injure 11 during violent student demonstrations at Jackson State College, in Mississippi. This occurs two days after six African-American men were fatally shot in the back for violating a city curfew in Augusta by the Georgia National Guard.
May 19: Student riot at Fresno State University in California.
May 21: 5,000 National Guard troops occupy Ohio State University following violence.
June 11: Daniel Berrigan is arrested by the FBI on charges of conspiring to kidnap persons and detonate a bomb.
June 12: Major League Baseball pitcher Dock Ellis takes LSD on what he mistakenly believes is an off day, and throws a no-hitter. Ellis later quits drugs, becomes a recovery counselor, and expresses regret over drug abuse during his playing career.[561][562]
June 13: President Nixon appoints the President's Commission on Campus Unrest. The report issued in September finds a direct correlation between the unrest and the level of American military involvement in Indochina.
June 15: The U.S. Supreme Court confirms the legality of conscientious objector protection on moral grounds.
June 22: The U.S. voting age is lowered to 18 by Congressional legislation. The measure is soon challenged and overturned in the Supreme Court, leading to the swift adoption of the 26th Amendment on June 1, 1971, guaranteeing suffrage at 18 in Federal, state, and local elections taking place in all 50 states.
June 27–28: The Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music happens at Shepton Mallet in Somerset, England, featuring Hot Tuna, Fleetwood Mac, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd and other acts.
July: Huston Plan: A broad, cross-agency scheme for illegal domestic surveillance of anti-war figures is concocted by a White House staffer, and accepted but then quickly quashed by President Nixon. Elements of the plan were, however, allegedly implemented in any event.[563][564][565]
August 6: Riot police evacuate Disneyland in Anaheim, California after a few hundred Yippies stage a protest.
August 17: Communist activist Angela Davis appears on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted list after a firearm purchased in her name is linked to a murder plot involving a judge.[566]
August 24: The Sterling Hall Bombing at the University of Wisconsin in Madison by anti-war activists kills physics researcher Robert Fassnacht. Four others are severely injured, and millions of dollars in damages occur.[567]
August 26: Women's Strike for Equality: 50 years after suffrage was granted to American women by an amendment to the Constitution, 20,000 celebrate and march in New York City, demanding true equality for women in American life.[568]
August 26–31: 600,000+ attend the Third Isle of Wight Festival in Great Britain. Over fifty acts, including The Who, Hendrix, Miles Davis, The Doors, Ten Years After, ELP, Joni Mitchell, and Jethro Tull play the event.
August 29–30: Rioting and violence erupts at the Chicano Moratorium anti-war rally in Los Angeles; reporter Rubén Salazar is killed by a tear gas shell.
September: Jesus Christ Superstar, a "Christian Rock Opera," debuts as an album. It later becomes a smash on Broadway and on film.[569]
September: Alan "Blind Owl" Wilson, who co-founded the rock group Canned Heat, dies of a prescription barbiturate overdose at Topanga Canyon, California, at age 27.[570]
September 12: Timothy Leary escapes prison with help from the Weather Underground, and joins Eldridge Cleaver in Algiers.
September 16: London: The apolitical but stylistically pioneering hard rock act Led Zeppelin end the Beatles' eight-year run as Melody Maker's #1 group of the year.
September 18: Influential musician Jimi Hendrix dies from complications of a probable drug overdose at age 27 in London.
September 19: Pilton Pop, Blues & Folk Festival: The first ever Glastonbury Festival features T-Rex and is attended by 1,500 people.
October: The Female Eunuch: Germaine Greer's pro-feminist bestseller is published.[571]
October: Keith Stroup founds NORML, a group working to end marijuana prohibition, in Washington, D.C.
October 4: Janis Joplin, rock music's first solo female superstar, dies as the result of an apparent accidental heroin overdose at age 27 in Los Angeles.
October 13: Political activist Angela Davis is arrested on kidnapping, murder, and conspiracy charges.
October 26: Doonesbury debuts as a syndicated comic strip, acknowledges the counterculture, and continues to chronicle events into the 21st century.[572]
October 29: President Nixon is pelted with eggs by a hostile crowd of 2,000 after giving a speech in San Jose, California.
November 7: Jerry Rubin appears live on The David Frost Show and tries to pass a marijuana joint to the talk show host, which becomes a cue for Yippies in the audience to rush the stage and protest.
December 6: The Maysles Brothers release their film documentary of the December 1969 Rolling Stone Altamont incident, Gimme Shelter.
December 21: Elvis Presley arrives unannounced at the White House. "The King" meets and is photographed with President Nixon. They discuss patriotism, hippies, and the war on drugs.[573][574][575]
December 25: Laguna Beach Christmas Happening: Thousands gather in Southern California for an extended hippie festival, featuring an airdrop of hundreds of Christmas cards, each containing a dose of "Orange Sunshine" LSD courtesy of The Brotherhood of Eternal Love, or the "Hippie Mafia," an acid-manufacturing and hash-smuggling organization bent on "psychedelic revolution."[576][577]
December: Paul McCartney sues to legally dissolve the Beatles.
The violent Black Liberation Army is formed in the U.S. A series of bombings, murders, robberies, prison breaks, and an airline hijacking ensue before the group fades from view in the early 1980s.[578]
1971
January 1: Punishment Park is released in theaters.[579]
January 2: A ban on cigarette advertising on American television and radio takes effect.[580] The measure, intended to discourage smoking, has a profound impact on the broadcasting business, causing many television stations in particular to lose revenue for the first time since their establishments in the 1950s and 1960s.
January 12: Styled after the popular British television situation comedy Till Death Us Do Part, the long-running American smash All in the Family debuts on CBS with Rob Reiner as Michael Stivic, the counterculture's college-educated answer to the working-class "Silent Majority"/Nixon devotee Archie Bunker.[581][582] The program soon becomes the nation's most popular, a status it holds for several years, and launches Norman Lear's career as a major producer of other successful comedies through the 1980s. At least one reference book calls it the most important show in U.S. television history that had aired up to that point.
January 31: Police fire on participants in a peace march in Los Angeles, killing one.
February 4: A military induction center in Oakland, California is bombed.
February 4–8: Rioting in Wilmington, North Carolina, related to poor local implementation of school desegregation over the past 18 months or so leaves two dead.
February 13: An induction center in Atlanta, Georgia is bombed.
February 21: The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances is signed in Vienna, with the intention of controlling psychoactive drugs such as amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and psychedelics at the international level.[85]
March 1: The U.S. Capitol building is bombed by war protesters; no injuries occurred, but extensive damage results. The incident, little reported in the media, disturbs the Nixon Administration enough to begin considering extra-legal measures to stop left-wing violence and repress political dissent.
March 5: The FCC declares that it will penalize radio stations for playing music that seems to glorify or promote illegal drug usage.
March 8: The Fight of the Century: Conscientious Objector and counterculture hero Muhammad Ali loses to the default symbol of the pro-war right, Joe Frazier, at Madison Square Garden in New York City, in what is widely considered to be the greatest heavyweight fight in boxing history.[583][584][585]
March 11: Rioting at the University of Puerto Rico leaves three dead.
April 23: Some Vietnam veterans protest against the War at the U.S. Capitol, physically discard and throw their medals on the steps, and testify that the American military has, in the view, committed war crimes (see Vietnam Veteran Medal Throwing Protest).
April 24: Approximately 500,000 protesters rally at the U.S. Capitol to petition for an end to the War; meanwhile, 200,000 rally against the War in San Francisco.
May 3: Over 12,000 anti-War protesters are arrested on the third day of the 1971 May Day Protests in Washington, D.C.
May 10: Attorney General John N. Mitchell compares the anti-War protesters to Nazis, and on May 13, denounces them as Communists.
May 12: The wedding of Mick Jagger and Nicaraguan beauty Bianca Pérez-Mora Macias is celebrated by hippies and jet-setters alike, but is marred by a media circus involving fisticuffs at Saint-Tropez on the French Riviera. The couple breaks up in 1977.[586][587][588]
May 17: The play Godspell opens in New York, depicting Jesus and his disciples in a contemporary, countercultural milieu.
May 21: Marvin Gaye releases the socially conscious album What's Going On, a drastic departure from his traditional soul-music themes of romance and African-American struggles.[589][590]
May 31: American military personnel stationed in London petition at the U.S. Embassy against the Vietnam War.
June 13: Pentagon Papers: The New York Times publishes the first excerpt of illegally-leaked secret Department of Defense documents detailing American intervention in Indochina since 1945. A Federal court injunction on June 15 temporarily stops the releases.[591]
June 18: The Washington Post publishes excerpts from the Pentagon Papers, halted by a court order the following day.
June 20–24 : 'Glastonbury Fayre', the second Glastonbury Festival, features David Bowie, Traffic, Fairport Convention, and the first incarnation of the "Pyramid Stage".
June 22: The Boston Globe publishes the Pentagon Papers excerpts; this is also halted by an injunction on the 23rd, and the newspapers are impounded.
June 28: Muhammad Ali's conviction for draft resistance is unanimously overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court.
June 28: President Nixon releases all 47 volumes of the Pentagon Papers to the U.S. Congress.
June 30: The Supreme Court rules 6–3 that newspapers have a right to publish the Pentagon Papers. The Times and Post resume publication the following day.
July 3: Jim Morrison, founding member of The Doors, dies of a probable heroin overdose at age 27 in Paris.[592]
July 7: Two-Lane Blacktop: The cult classic starring Dennis Wilson and James Taylor premieres.[593]
August 1: Concert for Bangladesh: George Harrison and Ravi Shankar and friends including Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton, Leon Russell, Billy Preston and Bob Dylan stage a landmark charity event in New York City. Popular albums and a film follow, and the shows become a model for future huge rock benefit concerts such as 1985's Live Aid.[594]
August 18: Attorney General Mitchell announces that there will be no Federal investigation of the 1970 Kent State shootings.
August: Cheech & Chong's eponymous first album is released.[595]
September 3: Burglars, later revealed to be operating under the direction of White House officials, break into the office of Daniel Ellsberg's psychiatrist, Dr. Lewis Fielding, in California in a botched attempt to locate files that might impugn and thus discredit the Pentagon Papers leaker.[596]
September 9: Attica: Prisoners take control, hold hostages and riot over perceived violations of their civil rights and poor living conditions at Attica State Prison in New York state. Thirty-nine persons die (including 10 corrections officers) before most prisoner demands are met and order is restored.[597]
September 15: Greenpeace is founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and soon becomes the most prominent, and most controversial, international activist environmental organization.[598][599]
October: est, the controversial self-improvement training program, holds its first conference in San Francisco.[600]
October 8: Three FBI informants reveal on a Public Broadcasting System television program that they were paid to infiltrate anti-War groups and instigate them to commit violent acts which could be prosecuted.
October 19–23: Rioting in Memphis, Tennessee leaves one dead.
October 29: Rock guitar phenomenon Duane Allman of the Allman Brothers Band is killed in a motorcycle accident in Macon, Georgia at age 24. Allman bassist Berry Oakley dies, also in a motorcycle crash, only blocks away the following year.[601] The ABB is credited with founding the genre of Southern Rock, a mix of hard rock, blues, country, jazz, and gospel influences. It appeals primarily to Southern White teenagers as an alternative to their parents' typical preferences for country music and Northern and Western young people's fondness for musically sophisticated progressive rock. Future groups performing this style of music include Lynyrd Skynyrd, Wet Willie, the Marshall Tucker Band, and the Charlie Daniels Band.
November 10: The Berkeley, California City Council votes to provide sanctuary to all military deserters.
November 10: Ringo Starr and Keith Moon co-star with Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention in Zappa's "surrealistic documentary" 200 Motels.[602]
November 16: Socialite, early supermodel, and Andy Warhol "Superstar" Edie Sedgwick dies at 28 after an overdose of alcohol and barbiturates in Santa Barbara, California.[603]
November: Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Hunter S. Thompson's drug-drenched indictment of the 1960s counterculture, is published in Rolling Stone magazine in two parts. Thompson parlays the piece into a long career writing so-called "gonzo journalism."
December 4: Smoke on the Water: Rockers Deep Purple are disrupted in the process of recording Machine Head when the hall they intend to use for recording is burned down by a fan during a Frank Zappa concert in Montreux, Switzerland.[604][605][606]
December 10: John Sinclair Freedom Rally: John Lennon and other notables including Stevie Wonder and Bob Seger perform, and Bobby Seale, Jerry Rubin, Allen Ginsberg, Rennie Davis, Ed Sanders and others speak at Crisler Arena in Ann Arbor, Michigan to protest the treatment of Sinclair, who inadvertently gave two marijuana joints to an undercover cop and was sentenced to 10 years in prison for the offense.[607][608]
December 26–28: 15 Vietnam veterans occupy the Statue of Liberty to protest the War's continuation after nearly seven years of active American involvement.
December 28: Anti-War veterans attempt a takeover of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., but 80 are arrested.
December 29: Boys in the Sand, a milestone[609] American gay pornographic film, presented at the beginnings of the Golden Age of Porn, premiers at the 55th Street Playhouse in New York City. Boys in the Sand was the first such film to be reviewed by Variety Magazine,[610] and one of the earliest openly pornographic films, after 1969's Blue Movie[611][612][613][614] by Andy Warhol, to gain mainstream appreciation.
December: Feminism comes of age: Gloria Steinem's Ms. magazine is first published as an insert in New York magazine. The first stand-alone issue is released the following month.
Stephen Gaskin establishes "The Farm" hippie commune in Lawrence County, Tennessee.[615]
Saul Alinsky's Rules for Radicals is published.[616]
Abbie Hoffman's Steal This Book is published.
The Anarchist Cookbook is published.
Our Bodies, Ourselves is published.[617]
Rainbow Bridge, Chuck Wein's film depicting the counterculture on Maui, and featuring the second-to-last live performance by Jimi Hendrix, is released.[618]
1972
February 1: The Needle and the Damage Done: Neil Young releases a moving musical testimonial of friends lost to deadly narcotics during the era. The growth of heroin use flattens out in the 1970s, but the drug is still considered "hip" and use explodes again among newer generations in the 1990s and beyond, who were unable to witness the original phenomenon.[619][620][621]
March: The Nixon Administration begins deportation proceedings against John Lennon, on the pretext of his 1968 hashish charge in London.[622][623]
March 22: The National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, appointed by President Nixon, finds "little danger" in cannabis and recommends abolition of all criminal penalties for possession. The advice is ignored by Federal officials, the Administration, and the Congress.
April 1: The first Hash Bash is held on the campus of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.[624]
April 16: Facing heavy ground losses, American forces resume the bombing of North Vietnam.
April 17–18: Students at the University of Maryland who protest the bombing do battle with the police and National Guardsmen are sent in to suppress the uprising.
April 22: Large anti-War marches take place in New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.
May 2: Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover dies at 77, after nearly 50 years of him having virtually unchallenged control over the principal Federal law enforcement agency, with even Presidents deferring to his authority.[625]
May 15: Wallace Shot: Segregationist 1968 Presidential candidate and Alabama Governor George Wallace is shot and paralyzed at a Presidential primary campaign event in Laurel, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C., by a young Milwaukee, Wisconsin man, Arthur Bremer, who had undetermined motives.[626] Wallace was running as a Democrat in that primaries for the 1972 race; the Maryland primary was to take place the next day. Although he recovers and makes a final attempt at a Presidential run in 1976, the incident effectively ends his national political career. He goes on to re-election in Alabama for two more terms, in 1974 and 1982.
May 19: A Weather Underground bomb at the Pentagon causes damage but no injuries.
May 21–22: Fifteen thousand persons demonstrate in Washington against the War.
June 4: Angela Davis is acquitted on all counts in her trial on weapons charges.
June 12: John Lennon's Plastic Ono Band releases the politically charged double album Some Time in New York City.
June 17: In a second attempt to obtain potentially damaging information on the Democratic Party that might benefit President Nixon's reelection campaign, five men are caught burglarizing the Party headquarters located in the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. All are arrested, and, initially, the story receives minimal notice from most national media.
June 23: U.S. public schools can no longer require girls to wear dresses or skirts and must permit them to wear pants, by act of the Education Amendments of 1972. Disputes over proper student attire had been for some years a source of friction between young people and their parents and other authority figures.
July 21: Comedian George Carlin is arrested at Summerfest in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, after performing his routine, "Seven Words You Can Never Say On Television," from his fourth stand-up album, Class Clown.
July 28: Actress Jane Fonda visits North Vietnam. Fonda's return incites outrage among non-liberal Americans when a photograph[627] of her seated on an enemy anti-aircraft gun is published, and she insists that Prisoners of Wars held captive have not been tortured or brainwashed by the communists. Fonda continues to this day to apologize for aspects of the episode.[628][629]
July: The first Rainbow Gathering of the Tribes is held over four days in Colorado.
October 26: October Surprise?: U.S. National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger tells a White House press conference that "we believe that peace is at hand" in Indochina.[630]
November 2–8: Bureau of Indian Affairs building takeover: About 500 protesters from the American Indian Movement take over the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington.
November 7: Republican Richard Nixon is re-elected in a landslide over left-wing Democratic Senator George McGovern of South Dakota.
November 16: Police kill two students during campus rioting at this historically-Black Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
November 21: A Federal Appeals Court overturns the conviction of the "Chicago 7" indicted for rioting near the 1968 Democratic National Convention.
December 18–29: Operation Linebacker II (a/k/a the "Christmas Bombings of 1972") becomes the most intensive bombing campaign of the war. President Nixon orders it with the aim of coercing North Vietnam to the negotiating table at the Paris Peace Accords, but some critics see his action as a flexing of political muscle to intimidate his domestic opponents, in light of his overwhelming victory some weeks earlier.
The Joy of Sex: Unthinkable a decade earlier, the widely read sex manual for the supposedly liberated 1970s is published and openly displayed in mainstream bookstores.
Michael X, a self-styled black revolutionary and civil rights activist in 1960s London, is convicted of murder. He is executed by hanging in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago in 1975.[631]
1973
January 1: Bangladeshis burn down the U.S. Information Service in Dacca in protest against the "Christmas Bombing" of North Vietnam some days earlier.
January 2: Aerial bombing of North Vietnam resumes after a 36-hour New Year's truce.
January 4: Forty neutral member nations of the United Nations formally protest the American bombing campaign.
January 5: Canada's Parliament votes unanimously to condemn the U.S. bombing actions and implores that the Nixon Administration cease them.
January 10: Anti-War demonstrators attack the U.S. consulate in Lyon, France, and burn down the library of America House in Frankfurt, West Germany.
January 10: The Environmental Protection Agency is sued by activists to force it to take action to begin reducing the permissible amount of tetraethly lead in gasoline; David Schoenbrod of the Natural Resources Defense Council successfully wins the case on appeal.[632][633][634]
January 15: Anti-War protesters occupy the American consulate in Amsterdam.
January 15: President Nixon suspends the bombing, citing progress in the peace talks with Hanoi. West German Chancellor Willy Brandt warns Nixon that U.S. relations with Western Europe are at risk if he continues aggression against North Vietnam.[635]
January 22: Former U.S. President Lyndon Baines Johnson dies at age 64 after suffering a heart attack at his Texas ranch.[636]
January 22: The Supreme Court hands down the landmark Roe v. Wade ruling, invalidating numerous state laws against abortion and declaring the procedure a Constitutional right for women, based on a fundamental concern for privacy between consenting adults.[637][638] Some believe the decision to represent the apex of the Sexual Revolution, and immediately, numerous conservative religious bodies, namely the Roman Catholic Church and, later, fundamentalist Protestants, begin advocacy, both peaceful and violent, for the decision's repeal or else an amendment to the Constitution banning the procedure. Over the next 49 years, the decision stays in effect despite some serious modifications, until June 2023, when a strongly anti-feminist Court overturns the decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, a ruling that directly attacks the legal reasoning of Roe.
January 28: American combat military involvement in Vietnam ends with a ceasefire and commencement of withdrawal as called for under the Paris Peace Accords.[639]
February 27 – May 8: Wounded Knee incident: Native American activists occupy the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota; two protesters and one Federal Marshal are killed during a lengthy standoff.[640]
March: The first military draftees who are not subsequently called to service are selected, unceremoniously ending the Vietnam era of conscription in the US.
March 8: Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, a founding member of the Grateful Dead, dies of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage at age 27 in Corte Madera, California.[641] McKernan was known to have a serious drinking problem.
March 29: War Ends: President Nixon announces that the last American combat troops have departed Vietnam, and U.S. POWs have been released.[642]
May 17: The Senate Watergate Committee begins televised hearings on the ever-growing Watergate scandal implicating the President for gross abuses of power. The matter is thrust into national attention thanks to tireless reportage by The Washington Post's Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, two beat reporters for the paper who happened to get the first "scoop" on the June 1972 story. Their leads uncovered trails of involvement in the affair by President Nixon's 1972 campaign arm.
July 1: The Drug Enforcement Administration supplants the BNDD.[643]
July 10: John Paul Getty III, 16, the grandson of miserly oil billionaire and the world's richest man, Jean Paul Getty, is kidnapped for ransom in Rome. The negotiated payment of about $3 million is only made after the junior Getty's ear is excised and mailed back to a newspaper. The youth survives, but becomes a drug addict and stroke victim, and dies in 2011 at age 54.[644]
July 28: The Summer Jam at Watkins Glen, New York draws a crowd of 600,000 to see the Grateful Dead, The Band, and the Allman Brothers – the largest rock concert in the U.S. since the 1969 Woodstock festival.[645]
August 15: All American military involvement in Indochina conflict officially ends under the Case–Church Amendment. Two years later, invocation of the law by an overwhelmingly Democratic Congress, would constrain President Gerald Ford from sending military financial aid and weaponry to South Vietnam in order to save the nation from falling to the North in April 1975.
September 19: In one of the most bizarre series of events of the era, celebrated journeyman country rock musician Gram Parsons dies of a morphine overdose after visiting Joshua Tree National Monument; his body is "stolen" by well-meaning friends attempting to fulfill Parson's funerary wishes and set afire at Joshua Tree. A film account of the misadventures is released in 2003.[646]
September 20: Folk-rock singer-songwriters Jim Croce and Maury Muehleisen are killed along with five others after their chartered tour plane crashes shortly after takeoff in Louisiana.[647] Croce is at the height of his popularity at the time of the fatality, and further songs of his are released posthumously during 1974.
September 20: The Battle of the Sexes: In a match heavily hyped by the media and promoted as a sports battle between male and female, tennis champions Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs compete at the Astrodome. King defeats Riggs in three straight sets.[648][649]
October 10: In a matter related to corrupt conduct while serving as Governor of Maryland and unrelated to the Watergate drama, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigns his office in a plea deal to avoid a Federal prison sentence for bribery. Agnew is only the second American Vice President to depart his position before the end of a term; John C. Calhoun was the first, in the 19th century. Reflecting his precarious political position and thus inability to nominate a strongly partisan and conservative Republican replacement due to almost-certain Democratic opposition, President Nixon names Congressman Gerald R. Ford of Michigan, the Minority Leader in the U.S. House of Representatives and someone who worked well with members of both parties, on October 12.[650]
October 23: Congress begins to consider articles of impeachment against Nixon in response to the "Saturday Night Massacre" several days earlier, where Watergate Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox and several underlings are either fired or resign in succession. Cox and his staff had been pressing Nixon strongly to release secretly-made audio recordings made while he and his staff were discussing the implications of the Watergate affair during the Summer of 1972. The episode turns even hard-line Nixon supporters who readily supported him barely a year earlier against him, and public support for the Administration drops drastically, coinciding with a series of domestic and international crises, including the Yom Kippur mideastern war and consequent Oil Shortage of 1973 that would bring the American post-World War II prosperity to an ignoble end.
November 14: Greece: Students at Athens Polytechnic strike against the military junta. Tanks roll the 17th and at least 24 die.[651]
November 17: At a session with 400 Association Press editors who practically harass him over his alleged attempt to cover up involvement in the Watergate matter, President Nixon defensively proclaims, "People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."[652]
1974
Saddled by a decade of drug-related legal problems, Timothy Leary reportedly becomes an informant for the FBI.[653]
January 3: A Federal judge dismisses charges against 12 members of the Weathermen involved in the October 1969 "Days of Rage".
February 5: Patty Hearst, an heiress to the Hearst family fortune of San Francisco, is kidnapped by the far-left extremist group the Symbionese Liberation Army (SLA) and, shockingly to the American public, eventually identifies with them and their aims, possibly after becoming a victim of Stockholm syndrome.
March–April: The short-lived fad of "streaking" (running in public while naked) reaches its height in the U.S.[654][655]
April 20: Disco music, following the success of The O'Jays' "Love Train" and Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes' "The Love I Lost" a year earlier, again hits number one on the Billboard charts with the instrumental "TSOP", a clear sign that the post-"sixties counterculture" era is now at hand. At another end of the musical spectrum, with a following largely among jaded college-educated White youngsters on the coasts, the punk rock subculture traces its genesis to around this time, with groups like Ramones and Television playing the CBGB club in New York City. About two and a half years later, several British acts, most notably the Sex Pistols, attract widespread attention with their rapid-speed music featuring abrasive or even offensive lyrics, a movement that runs until about 1980.
May 17: Five SLA members, including their leader, are killed fighting police during a standoff in Los Angeles.[656]
Summer: The first issue of High Times, a magazine celebrating cannabis culture, is published.
July 29: Singing star "Mama" Cass Elliot, 32, dies after a heart attack in the London flat of Harry Nilsson. The Who drummer Keith Moon, also 32, dies from overdosing on an anti-alcoholism drug in the same home in 1978.[657][658]
August 5: Having lost a long battle with the Supreme Court and Federal attorneys to keep from releasing incriminating information that indicates that he directed the CIA to have the FBI refrain from investigating the burglary of the Democratic Party National Headquarters in June 1972, President Nixon is forced to admit his complicity in the matter when the recording disclosing the instruction is released publicly. Almost all his remaining supporters in the U.S. Congress desert him upon the revelation of the new information and demand that he leave office as soon as possible.
August 8: Facing imminent impeachment from representatives and certain impeachment from senators, Richard Milhous Nixon announces his resignation as President of the United States, the first (and to date, only) ever to do so, from the White House on television and radio that evening.
August 9: Nixon returns to his California home as a private citizen (effected when Secretary of State Henry Kissinger receives his formal letter of resignation at approximately 11:35 a.m. Eastern Time). Thirty minutes later, in the White House East Room, Gerald Ford is sworn in as president and declares in his inaugural speech that "our long national nightmare is over." Ford is the only person to have occupied the White House without actually running for either that office or that of the Vice Presidency. His last election was to a final term for his U.S. House district in Michigan in 1972, and he had, in years past, set his hopes on becoming Speaker of the House of Representatives should the Republican Party assume control of that chamber in the future. He immediately declares rampant inflation, caused mostly by massive spending occurring during the Johnson years on both social programs and military operations abroad, as the nation's most serious problem.
September–December: Police repeatedly quell unrest among White parents, mainly Irish-Americans, as desegregation comes to Boston public high schools. Many begin sending their children to parochial (Catholic) schools instead, or else they move to the area's suburbs, reflecting an increasing trend in much of metropolitan America at the time.
September 8: In a decision that political observers retrospectively claim cost him any chance to obtain a full term in his own right in 1976, President Ford fully pardons former Richard Nixon during a surprise Sunday morning televised address, putting a final end to the Watergate saga outside the American judiciary. Charitable speculations abound that Ford wants desperately to deter a re-ignition of recently quelled social conflict in the country, while cynics, on the other hand, postulate that Ford and Nixon worked out a quid pro quo deal. The outrage on the part of many legislators spills over into the confirmation process for Nelson Rockefeller to become Ford's vice president; he is not confirmed and sworn in until a few days before Christmas, due to hypersensitivity over suspected corruption by Rockefeller (by Democrats especially) on certain business dealings.
September 16: President Ford offers a conditional amnesty to military deserters and evaders of the Vietnam-era draft, creating a possible path for the re-entry of some into the U.S.[659]
December 13: President Ford invites George Harrison to a luncheon at the White House, a sign of the "Establishment's" increasing acceptance of the youth culture of recent years.[660] Another British rock star, Peter Frampton, would pay a visit in 1976.
December 21: The New York Times reports that the Central Intelligence Agency illegally spied on 10,000 anti-War dissidents during Nixon's presidency.[661][662] Espionage on American citizens is directly prohibited by the CIA's charter.
1975
January 1: In a special New Year's Day court session, John Mitchell and three other Watergate conspirators are found guilty and sentenced to prison on February 21.
January 27: Church Committee: The U.S. Senate votes to begin unprecedented investigation into US intelligence activities, including illegal spying on domestic radicals.[663] Democratic Senator Frank Church of Idaho is the chairman, and he has an overwhelmingly favorable Congress to work with due to the party's strong performance in the November 1974 midterm elections. The freshmen become collectively known as "Watergate Babies," and, along with President Ford, help to move American economic and foreign policy into a more libertarian direction, prizing recently won social freedoms but turning, at least rhetorically, against large-scale governmental spending and aggressive military activity abroad. Eventually, this develops through the presidency of Jimmy Carter and mutates into the neoliberal paradigm that dominates 1980s and 1990s Washington, from Ronald Reagan through George W. Bush.
January 29: A Weather Underground bomb explodes at the U.S. State Department, but none were injured. This transpires to be the final significant incident of violence caused by the New Left.
April 17: Cambodia Falls:
April 30: Operation Frequent Wind: With the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong openly violating the terms of the 1973 Paris Peace Accords under the realization that the U.S. would not come to the aid of South Vietnam due to overwhelming political opposition in light of Nixon's resignation and the Ford Administration's sharp focus on ridding America of high inflation, Communists begin steamrolling most of the country, which begins early in the year. Most of the populace and leaders in the South opt to abandon the nation to those forces rather than face certain death. Moving progressively southward, soldiers eventually reach Saigon by late April. President Ford orders help for the last remaining U.S. military and intelligence personnel to escape Saigon, in time before tanks approach the presidential palace and the South Vietnamese government surrenders, putting an end to a 21-year effort by the. Viet Minh to reunite the people under a Communist regime.[664]
September 5: Political Assassinations Briefly Return to Fashion: President Ford survives an assassination attempt by a devoteé of convicted murderer and cult leader Charles Manson, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, who seeks to draw attention to both his plight and her belief that American environmental policy did not sufficiently control industrial pollution.[665][666] The incident occurs near a gathering of Republican businessmen in the California state capital of Sacramento; the industrialists are a target of Fromme's ire. Despite Fromme coming within inches of the President as he walks through downtown Sacramento greeting well-wishers along the way, her firearm fails on her, and she is immediately subdued and arrested by the Secret Service. She is convicted two months later and stays in prison until 2009.
September 18: Patty Hearst is arrested by the FBI.[667]
September 22: Seventeen days after the botched Fromme attempt on President Ford's life, another California woman, Sara Jane Moore, makes an attempt in San Francisco.
October 7: A New York State Supreme Court judge reverses the deportation order against John Lennon, allowing Lennon to legally remain in the U.S.[668] Lennon would never again perform publicly. Yoko Ono did not perform publicly until after Lennon's death.
October 11: Saturday Night Live: The counterculture comes of age as George Carlin hosts the first episode of the mainstream television revue, conceived as an experimental program to replace reruns of Johnny Carson's Tonight Show, which the talk show host demanded as a condition of renewing his contract with NBC. The series, still running as of 2023 after 48 seasons, soon features many notable American television firsts, including things like an open depiction of marijuana use in comedy sketches.[669][670][671]
1977
January 21: Newly inaugurated US President Jimmy Carter unconditionally pardons thousands of Vietnam draft evaders, allowing them to re-enter the US, mostly from Canada.[672]
August 16: Elvis Presley, the most significant progenitor of the rock era, early critic of the counterculture, and biggest selling individual recording artist of all time dies at age 42 from complications of prescription drug abuse in Memphis, Tennessee.[673][674]
1980s
1980
December 8: John Lennon, 40, founding member of the Beatles and standard-bearer of the counterculture generation, is murdered in New York, triggering an outpouring of grief around the world.[675]
See also
Counterculture of the 1960s
Opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War: Timeline
List of protests against the Vietnam War
Timeline of the civil rights movement
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Corley, Cheryl (October 25, 2005). "Audio: Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies, A Remembrance". NPR. National Public Radio. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
Max Décharné (December 9, 2010). A Rocket in My Pocket: The Hipster's Guide to Rockabilly Music. Profile Books. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-84765-241-6.
Wesley K. Wark (September 13, 2013). Twenty-First Century Intelligence. Routledge. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-135-17540-5.
Churchill, Ward; Vander Wall, Jim (1990), The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars Against Domestic Dissent, Boston: South End Press.
Hess, Amanda (July 25, 2013). "RIP Virginia Johnson, Pioneering Femalesplainer". Slate. Retrieved January 9, 2021.
"SCLC:Our History". sclcnational.org. Southern Christian Leadership Council. Archived from the original on February 6, 2015. Retrieved May 16, 2014.
Andito (September 5, 2012). ""On the Road" Published 55 Years Ago Today". gvshp.org. Greenwich Village Society for Historical Preservation. Retrieved July 15, 2014. "Reference contains: Blog Text, Links, & Photos"
Jack Kerouac (August 16, 2007). On the Road: The Original Scroll (Penguin Classics Deluxe ed.). Penguin Group US. ISBN 978-1-101-20157-2.
"Executive Order 10730: Desegregation of Central High School (1957)". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved June 5, 2014.
Garber, Steve (October 10, 2007). "Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age". nasa.gov. US National Aeronautics & Space Administration. Retrieved May 26, 2014.
Bergaust, Erik; Beller, William (1957). Satellite! (Bantam, 1957-11 ed.). New York: Doubleday.
Paul Dickson (May 26, 2009). Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-8027-1804-4.
Ferreira, Becky (December 6, 2015). "Watch the Spectacular Inferno of America's First Satellite Attempt". motherboard.vice.com. Vice Media. Retrieved March 2, 2016. "When Sputnik was launched into orbit on October 4, 1957, people around the world understandably flipped out. Even today, Sputnik is remembered less as a scientific experiment than as a cultural sea change, and the spectacular cold open of the Space Race."
"History". Peace Action.
Abbe A. Debolt; James S. Baugess (December 12, 2011). Encyclopedia of the Sixties: A Decade of Culture and Counterculture [2 volumes]: A Decade of Culture and Counterculture. ABC-CLIO. p. 504. ISBN 978-1-4408-0102-0.
"Elvis Presley is inducted into the U.S. Army". History.com. History Channel/A&E Networks. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2014.
Hamlin, Jesse (November 26, 1995). "How Herb Caen Named a Generation". sfgate.com. San Francisco Chronicle/Hearst. Retrieved July 31, 2014. "Chronicle columnist Herb Caen coined the word "beatnik" on April 2, 1958, six months after the Soviets launched the Sputnik satellite into space."
John Hostettler (2012). Dissenters, Radicals, Heretics and Blasphemers: The Flame of Revolt that Shines Through English History. Waterside Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-904380-82-5.
"Early defections in march to Aldermaston". The Guardian. April 5, 1958. Retrieved July 31, 2014. "The march bore the signs of careful planning. The column with its banners – "Which is to be banned, the H-bomb or the human race?" – got off on time, and the long snake that slid down Piccadilly, Kensington High Street, and Chiswick High Road, managed with only discreet help from the police, not to obstruct what little traffic there was."
"Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle: National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (SANE)". stanford.edu. The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. June 12, 2017. Retrieved December 4, 2019. "On 15 November 1957, SANE ran a full-page advertisement in the New York Times warning Americans: We are facing a danger unlike any danger that has ever existed. Inspired by the enthusiastic response to its Times advertisement, SANE redefined itself as a mass membership organization, gaining 130 chapters and 25,000 members by the following summer."
"SLATE Digital Archives". SLATE Archives Committee. Retrieved July 31, 2014. "SLATE officially organizes. Temporary SLATE Coordinating Committee includes Charleen Rains, Owen Hill Pat Hallinan, Peter Franck, Fritjof Thygeson and Mike Miller."
W.J. Rorabaugh Professor of History University of Washington (May 4, 1989). Berkeley at War : The 1960s: The 1960s. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-802252-7.
Randall Balmer (May 13, 2014). Redeemer: The Life of Jimmy Carter. Basic Books. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-465-02958-7.
Robert B. Ekelund, Jr.; Robert F. Hébert (August 30, 2013). A History of Economic Theory and Method: Sixth Edition. Waveland Press. p. 499. ISBN 978-1-4786-1106-6.
"Fidel Castro- Fulgencio Batista (1901–1973)". pbs.org. PBS Online/WGBH/The American Experience. December 21, 2004. Retrieved July 9, 2014. "He was called El Hombre, "the Man," and for three decades he was one of Cuba's most controversial leaders. It would take Fidel Castro and the Cuban revolution to unseat him."
CUBA'S REPRESSIVE MACHINERY: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution. Human Rights Watch. 1999. ISBN 1-56432-234-3. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-63561. Retrieved July 9, 2014. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
Kemp, Susan. "Human Rights in Cuba" (PDF). Human Rights & Human Welfare (University of Denver). Retrieved July 9, 2014. "This section provides General Background information on the recent human rights situation in Cuba. The subcategory of Spanish Resources includes eight books on human rights in Cuba. The Socialism subcategory includes sources discussing the changing political environment in Cuba since the Cold War and the impact of the instability of Cuba's socialist system."
Suddath, Claire (February 3, 2009). "The Day the Music Died (A Brief History)". Time. Retrieved May 28, 2014.
"Guitarist who avoided Buddy Holly plane crash dies at 85". Fox News. January 13, 2017. Retrieved January 13, 2017. "Tommy Allsup was part of Holly's band when the Lubbock, Texas, singer died in the Feb. 3, 1959, plane crash near Clear Lake, Iowa. Allsup flipped a coin to see who between him and Valens would get a seat on the plane and who would have to take the bus to the next stop on the tour."
Moyer, Justin Wm. (April 8, 2015). "Gloomy Don McLean reveals meaning of 'American Pie' – and sells lyrics for $1.2 million". Washington Post. Retrieved January 17, 2017. "Shoved into unheated buses on a "Winter Dance Party" tour in 1959, Holly – tired of rattling through the Midwest with dirty clothes – chartered a plane on Feb. 3 to fly from Clear Lake, Iowa, to Fargo, N.D., where he hoped he could make an appointment with a washing machine. Joining him on the plane were Ritchie Valens and, after future country star Waylon Jennings gave up his seat, J.P. Richardson, a.k.a. "the Big Bopper." Taking off in bad weather with a pilot not certified to do so, the plane crashed, killing everyone aboard. The toll was incalculable: The singers of "Peggy Sue" and "Come On Let's Go" and "Donna" and "La Bamba" were dead. Holly was just 22; incredibly, Valens was just 17. Rock and roll would never be the same."
Kim Howard Johnson (April 1, 2008). The Funniest One in the Room: The Lives and Legends of Del Close. Chicago Review Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-1-56976-436-7.
Woo, Elaine (March 8, 1999). "Del Close – Improvisational Comedy Pioneer". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 30, 2015. "Much of Close's own humor on stage was morbidly satirical. A gypsy of the counterculture – he hung out with Ken Kesey and Timothy Leary, was a prolific and proud abuser of drugs, and ran light shows for the Grateful Dead – Close said his comic sensibility was fueled by "social rage.""
Drury, Jeffrey P. (2006). "Paul Potter, "The Incredible War" (17 April 1965)". Archived from the original on October 9, 2014. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "Although the beginnings of the 1965 March on Washington can be located in a number of places, it is perhaps best to begin with the origins of the chief organization behind the march: the Students for a Democratic Society. As a social movement organization, the SDS grew out of a parent group founded in 1905 called the League for Industrial Democracy (LID). The LID embraced a largely socialist orientation toward democratic governance; the organization was initially called the Intercollegiate Socialist Society before changing its name in 1921. Many prominent political thinkers were members of the LID, including Upton Sinclair, Walter Lippmann, Michael Harrington, and John Dewey (who was president for a short time). Growing out of the larger organization, the student section of the LID – aptly titled the Student League for Industrial Democracy, or SLID – existed in early 1960 on only three campuses: Yale, Columbia, and the University of Michigan."
Walker, Jack (June 1983). "The Origins and Maintenance of Interest Groups in America" (PDF). The American Political Science Review. 77 (2). American Political Science Association: 390–406. doi:10.2307/1958924. JSTOR 1958924. S2CID 145465411. Retrieved January 14, 2015. "From: The American Political Science Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, (Jun., 1983), pp. 390–406"
Whicker, Alan; Jones, Wizz; et al. (1960). "(Nominal) BBC Interview". YouTube. BBC. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "The original broadcast air date of the report has not been verified."
Thompson, Nathan (June 8, 2014). "True secrets of psychedelics: Are they everything they're cracked up to be?". Salon. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
Sigel, Efrem (December 12, 1962). "Psilocybin Expert Raps Leary, Alpert on Drugs". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved July 1, 2014. "Original article was updated on 2014-01-27"
"Freedom Struggle – Sitting for Justice: Woolworth's Lunch Counter". A collective effort of the staff of the National Museum of American History, Behring Center via Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "On February 1, 1960, four African American college students sat down at a lunch counter at Woolworth's in Greensboro, North Carolina, and politely asked for service. Their request was refused. When asked to leave, they remained in their seats. Their passive resistance and peaceful sit-down demand helped ignite a youth-led movement to challenge racial inequality throughout the South. (text and photos)"
"Investigation is Ordered in Sit-In Demonstration" (PDF). March 26, 1960. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 3, 2015. "Governor Buford Ellington ordered today a full investigation into the activities of a television network camera crew..."
"SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee)". northcarolinahistory.org. North Carolina History Project via John Locke Foundation. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "SNCC evolved out of that Easter weekend at Shaw University. Students in the SCLC had wished, for some time, for a student-led organization. (There were student chapters within the SCLC, but Martin Luther King Jr. had not been pushing for an official student organization). Students wanted leadership opportunities and had different strategies than the SCLC leadership, which they believed moved toward progress at a glacial speed. At the 1960 Shaw meeting, students also expressed a fear that a strong centralized organization (even if student-led) would be a foe of democracy. Therefore, Baker and others established SNCC as a decentralized organization, with the national headquarters providing support and literature, including a newspaper, but not the strategy and leadership."
"Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Volume X, Part 1, Eastern Europe Region, Soviet Union, Cyprus May–July 1960: The U–2 Airplane Incident". history.state.gov. US Department of State. Retrieved June 23, 2014.
Wise, David; Ross, Thomas (1962). The U-2 Affair (Bantam, 1962-11 ed.). New York: Random House / Bantam. "Here, told for the first time, is the remarkable story behind the most explosive espionage case of the 20th century..."
"FDA Approves the Pill". History Channel.
Fink, Brenda (September 29, 2011). "The pill and the marriage revolution". gender.stanford.edu. Clayman Institute / Stanford University. Archived from the original on December 12, 2017. Retrieved November 26, 2014. "The birth control pill arrived on the market in 1960. Within two years, 1.2 million American women were "on the pill." By 1964, it was the most popular contraceptive in the country. Looking back, Americans credit – or blame – the pill with unleashing the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. The pill is widely believed to have loosened sexual mores, including the double standard that sanctioned premarital sex for men but not for women. But, according to historian Elaine Tyler May, this idea is largely a myth. As May explained to a Stanford audience, the pill's impact on the sexual revolution is unclear. What is clear is that the drug had a far greater impact within marriage itself."
"The Sixties: House Un-American Activities Committee" at PBS.org
Carl Nolte (May 13, 2010). "'Black Friday,' birth of U.S. protest movement". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on May 17, 2010.
Stack, Barbara. "HUAC Black Friday Police Riot – May 13, 1960 (Archival Material: Free Speech Movement)". btstack.com. Barbara Toby Stack. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
"Timeline". Peace Action. Archived from the original on March 13, 2015. Retrieved March 16, 2015.
Mejia, Paula (February 19, 2016). "Harper Lee, Author of 'To Kill a Mockingbird,' Dies at 89". newsweek.com. Newsweek. Retrieved February 20, 2016. "Lee became a literary phenomenon upon the publication of Mockingbird on July 11, 1960. It was a best-seller and earned the author the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1961 – an astonishing feat for a debut novel. "No book in years has commanded the kind of volunteer claque which is now pushing an unassuming first novel toward the best-seller list's summit," wrote Newsweek in its profile of Lee that same year. The following year the Mockingbird film adaptation, starring Gregory Peck as the white lawyer Atticus Finch who defends a black man wrongfully accused of rape, was released. The film was also hailed an instant classic."
Wooley, John; Peters, Gerhard. "Election of 1960". presidency.ucsb.edu. Gerhard Peters – The American Presidency Project via University of California-Santa Barbara. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
"Key Counties May Indicate Closest Election Since 1916". AP via The Milwaukee Journal (Google capture). October 20, 1960. Retrieved June 12, 2014.[permanent dead link]
Shribman, David (October 24, 2010). "Nixon v. Kennedy: 50 years ago America chose between two men who were dramatically different – and eerily similar". post-gazette.com. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette/PG Publishing Co. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
White, Theodore H. (1961). The Making of the President 1960 (First ed.). New York: Atheneum House. p. 386. ISBN 9780689708039.
Jones, Carolyn (January 7, 2010). "Human potential pioneer George Leonard dies". sfgate.com. San Francisco Chronicle/Hearst. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
Martin, Douglas (January 18, 2010). "George Leonard, Voice of '60s Counterculture, Dies at 86". The New York Times. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
"President Dwight D. Eisenhower's Farewell Address (1961): On January 17, 1961, in this farewell address, President Dwight Eisenhower warned against the establishment of a "military-industrial complex."". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved June 4, 2014.
"President John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address (1961)". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved June 4, 2014.
Kennedy, John. "John F. Kennedy Inaugural Address". Transcription as posted by University of California, Santa Barbara. Archived from the original on August 17, 2018. Retrieved March 16, 2015.
"Executive Order 10924: Establishment of the Peace Corps. (1961)". Ourdocuments.gov. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
Gunston, Bill (1973). Bombers of the West. New York: Scribner. p. 254. ISBN 978-0684136233.
"International Drug Control Conventions". unodc.org. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Archived from the original on March 17, 2014. Retrieved June 4, 2014.
Glines, Jr., Carroll V (1963). The Compact History of the United States Air Force (New & Revised, May 1973 ed.). New York: Hawthorn Books. pp. 319–320. ISBN 0-405-12169-5.
"The Bay of Pigs". jfklibrary.org. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "Before his inauguration, John F. Kennedy was briefed on a plan by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) developed during the Eisenhower administration to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of their homeland. The plan anticipated that the Cuban people and elements of the Cuban military would support the invasion. The ultimate goal was the overthrow of Castro and the establishment of a non-communist government friendly to the United States."
Cia History Office Staff; Jack B. Pfeiffer (September 2011). CIA Official History of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Volume IV: The Taylor Committee Investigation of the Bay of Pigs. Military Bookshop. ISBN 978-1-78039-476-3.
"The Freedom Rides: CORE Volunteers Put Their Lives on the Road". core-online.org. Congress of Racial Equality. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "In 1961 CORE undertook a new tactic aimed at desegregating public transportation throughout the south. These tactics became known as the "Freedom Rides". The first Freedom Ride took place on May 4, 1961 when seven blacks and six whites left Washington, D.C., on two public buses bound for the Deep South. They intended to test the Supreme Court's ruling in Boynton v. Virginia (1960), which declared segregation in interstate bus and rail stations unconstitutional. In the first few days, the riders encountered only minor hostility, but in the second week the riders were severely beaten. Outside Anniston, Alabama, one of their buses was burned, and in Birmingham several dozen whites attacked the riders only two blocks from the sheriff's office. With the intervention of the U.S. Justice Department, most of CORE's Freedom Riders were evacuated from Birmingham, Alabama to New Orleans. John Lewis, a former seminary student who would later lead SNCC and become a US congressman, stayed in Birmingham. CORE Leaders decided that letting violence end the trip would send the wrong signal to the country. They reinforced the pair of remaining riders with volunteers, and the trip continued. The group traveled from Birmingham to Montgomery without incident, but on their arrival in Montgomery they were savagely attacked by a mob of more than 1000 whites. The extreme violence and the indifference of local police prompted a national outcry of support for the riders, putting pressure on President Kennedy to end the violence. The riders continued to Mississippi, where they endured further brutality and jail terms but generated more publicity and inspired dozens more Freedom Rides. By the end of the summer, the protests had spread to train stations and airports across the South, and in November, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued rules prohibiting segregated transportation facilities."
"Berlin Crises". Archived from the original on December 3, 2014. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "At the Vienna Summit in June 1961, Khrushchev reiterated his threat to sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany if the West did not come to terms over Berlin by the end of the year. Rather than submit to such pressure, President John F. Kennedy replied that it would be a "cold winter." When he returned to the United States, Kennedy faced instead a summer of decision. On July 25 he announced plans to meet the Soviet challenge in Berlin, including a dramatic buildup of American conventional forces and drawing the line on interference with Allied access to West Berlin. This warning, in fact, contained the basis for resolving the crisis. On August 13 the East German Government, supported by Khrushchev, finally closed the border between East and West Berlin by erecting what eventually became the most concrete symbol of the Cold War: the Berlin Wall. Although the citizens of Berlin reacted to the wall with outrage, many in the West – certainly within the Kennedy administration – reacted with relief. The wall interfered with the personal lives of the people but not with the political position of the Allies in Berlin. The result was a "satisfactory" stalemate – the Soviets did not challenge the legality of Allied rights, and the Allies did not challenge the reality of Soviet power."
Kennedy, John F. "Report on the Berlin Crisis (July 25, 1961) by John F. Kennedy". millercenter.org. Miller Center / University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "So long as the Communists insist that they are preparing to end by themselves unilaterally our rights in West Berlin and our commitments to its people, we must be prepared to defend those rights and those commitments. We will at all times be ready to talk, if talk will help. But we must also be ready to resist with force, if force is used upon us. Either alone would fail. Together, they can serve the cause of freedom and peace."
"Amnesty International: Where it All Began". amnesty.org. Amnesty International. Retrieved April 29, 2016. "In 1961, British lawyer Peter Benenson was outraged when two Portuguese students were jailed just for raising a toast to freedom. He wrote an article in The Observer newspaper and launched a campaign that provoked an incredible response. Reprinted in newspapers across the world, his call to action sparked the idea that people everywhere can unite in solidarity for justice and freedom. This inspiring moment didn't just give birth to an extraordinary movement, it was the start of extraordinary social change."
"The Nobel Peace Prize 1977 Amnesty International". nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved April 30, 2016. "Amnesty International was founded in 1961 by Peter Benenson, a British lawyer. It was originally his intention to launch an appeal in Britain with the aim of obtaining an amnesty for prisoners of conscience all over the world. The committee working for this cause soon found that a detailed documentation of this category of prisoners would be needed. Gradually they realized that the work would have to be carried out on a more permanent basis; the number of prisoners of conscience was enormous and they were to be found in every part of the world."
"The construction of the Berlin Wall". berlion.de. Governing Mayor of Berlin – Senate Chancellery. Retrieved January 12, 2017. "Around 2.7 million people left the GDR and East Berlin between 1949 and 1961, causing increasing difficulties for the leadership of the East German communist party, the SED. Around half of this steady stream of refugees were young people under the age of 25. Roughly half a million people crossed the sector borders in Berlin each day in both directions, enabling them to compare living conditions on both sides. In 1960 alone, around 200,000 people made a permanent move to the West. The GDR was on the brink of social and economic collapse."
Brian J. Collins (January 2011). NATO: A Guide to the Issues. ABC-CLIO. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-313-35491-5.
File:EUCOM Checkpoint Charlie Standoff 1961.jpg
"Women Strike for Peace". jwa.org. Jewish Women's Archive. Retrieved September 22, 2014. "On November 1, 1961, Women Strike For Peace (WSP) was inaugurated with a day-long strike by an estimated 50,000 women in 60 cities, all pressing for nuclear disarmament. The organization was composed primarily of mothers who feared the effects of nuclear proliferation on the short- and long-term health of their children. They were particularly concerned with levels of irradiation in milk and the increase in nuclear testing. WSP had the slogan "End the Arms Race – Not the Human Race," as well as "Pure Milk, Not Poison." Bella Abzug joined the group in its early organizational stages as an active participant in the New York contingent and as creator and chairperson of WSP's legislative committee. By pushing the organization to incorporate legislative lobbying into its efforts, she helped it to become an effective political force. By 1964, the emphasis of Women Strike for Peace had shifted to focus as much on the Vietnam War as on disarmament, protesting against the draft and the war's effects on Vietnamese children. Abzug remained active in WSP until she was elected to Congress in 1970."
Marder, Dorothy. "Photographs of Dorothy Marder – Women Strike for Peace, 1961–1975". swarthmore.edu. Elizabeth Matlock and Wendy Chmielewski via Swarthmore College (Swarthmore College Peace Collection). Retrieved September 22, 2014. "Women Strike for Peace (WSP) was formed in 1961 after over 50,000 women across the country marched for peace and against above ground testing of nuclear weapons. By the mid 1960s the focus of the organization shifted to working against the Vietnam war. Dorothy Marder took photographs at many WSP demonstrations on the East Coast and her images appeared in WSP publications. Her photographs show the women behind WSP who wanted to protect their families from nuclear testing and a male-dominated militarism. Leaders of the organization include Dagmar Wilson, Bella Abzug, Amy Swerdlow, Cora Weiss, and many more are featured in Dorothy Marder's photography."
"Inspector General's Survey of the Cuban Operation and Associated Documents" (PDF). February 16, 1962. Retrieved November 26, 2014.
Lansdale (February 20, 1962). "[Internal Memo] The Cuba Project". p. 1. Retrieved November 26, 2014.
Weiner, Tim (November 23, 1997). "Stupid Dirty Tricks; The Trouble With Assassinations". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2015. "Editor's Note: October 30, 1998, Friday An article on Sept. 29 discussed the release of 60,000 secret documents on the killing of President John F. Kennedy. Their declassification occurred over a period, leading up to the final report of a citizens' commission created by Congress six years ago to dispel lingering suspicions that the truth had been hidden. Discussing criticism of the Warren Commission, which investigated the assassination at the time, the article said that one member, Allen W. Dulles, a former Director of Central Intelligence, had failed to tell fellow members that Kennedy had ordered the C.I.A. to assassinate Castro. The article did not cite evidence or authority for the assertion about the President. Earlier articles, on July 20, 1997, and Nov. 23, 1997, also declared without qualification that Kennedy ordered Fidel Castro's assassination. A number of prominent historians and officials with knowledge of intelligence matters in that era have asserted in interviews that President Kennedy gave such an order. But others, also close to the President, dispute their account. The Times's practice is to attribute or qualify information that it is unable to report firsthand. That should have been done in these cases."
"Betty Friedan and the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women". Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study / Harvard University. November 20, 2013. Archived from the original on November 16, 2018. Retrieved November 26, 2014. "Text & Video"
American Women: Report of The President's Commission on the Status of Women. 1963 (PDF). US Government via University of Michigan via Hathitrust.org. 1963. Retrieved November 26, 2014. "Google digitized pdf from U-M library"
Laneri, Raquel (February 5, 2018). "How a Harlem fashion show started the 'Black is Beautiful' movement". New York Post. Retrieved February 6, 2018. "The event, held in the basement of the Harlem Purple Manor, a popular nightclub on East 125th Street, was called "Naturally '62" and was intended to promote African culture and fashion. What made the show revolutionary were the models: a group of nonprofessionals with unabashedly dark skin and natural, unprocessed, curly hair. They were part of the newly formed Grandassa Models, and they were as unlike any fashion plates as the crowd had ever seen. "It was a pioneering concept, women coming out on stage wearing their hair in a natural state," former AJASS member Robert Gumbs told The Post. "We didn't know how the community would respond. I think a number of people came to laugh." Yet by the end of the evening, audience members were cheering the models. And the show's slogan, "Black Is Beautiful" – printed on fliers and posters announcing the event – would become a rallying cry and movement celebrating natural hair, darker skin and African heritage."
"Battlefield: Timeline". PBS. Retrieved February 11, 2016. "In Operation Chopper, helicopters flown by U.S. Army pilots ferry 1,000 South Vietnamese soldiers to sweep a NLF stronghold near Saigon. It marks America's first combat missions against the Vietcong."
Buckingham, Jr., William (1983). "Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southeast Asia". Air University Review (United States Edition). 34 (5). Air University Review: 42–53. PMID 12879499. Archived from the original on February 22, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2014.
"Bob Dylan". Billboard. Retrieved February 9, 2016.
"The Official Web Page of the United Farm Workers of America". UFW. Archived from the original on September 6, 2013. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
"The Statement". University of Michigan Department of History. 2012. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved November 21, 2014. "The Port Huron Statement was the declaration of principles issued June 15, 1962, by Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), a major radical student organization in the United States during the 1960s. Having only a few hundred members across the country at the time the Statement was drafted, SDS drew tens of thousands of students into its ranks as the movement against the Vietnam War grew – before a deep factional split destroyed the organization in 1969. During SDS's history of activism, 60,000 copies of the Statement were distributed. It has become a historical landmark of American leftwing radicalism and a widely influential discourse on the meaning of democracy in modern society."
Lopez-Munoz, Francisco; Ucha-Udabe, Ronaldo; Alamo, Cecilio (December 2005). "The History of Barbiturates a Century after their Clinical Introduction". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 1 (4). Dove Press via US National Institutes of Health: 329–343. PMC 2424120. PMID 18568113. "In relation to the frequent cases of death by overdose, given the small therapeutic margin of these substances, it should be pointed out that this was a common method in suicide attempts. It suffices to recall, in this regard, the famous case of Marilyn Monroe, on whose death certificate it clearly states "acute poisoning by overdose of barbiturates" (Figure 7). The lethal effect of these compounds was such that a mixture of barbiturates with other substances was even employed in some USA states for the execution of prisoners sentenced to death. Furthermore, there are classic reports of fatal overdose due to the "automatism phenomenon", whereby the patient would take his or her dose, only to forget that he or she had already taken it, given the amnesic effect of the drug, and take it again, this process being repeated several times (Richards 1934). Figure 8 shows the evolution of number of deaths (accidental or suicide) by barbiturate overdose in England and Wales for the period 1905–1960. In this regard, and in the city of New York alone, in the period 1957–1963, there were 8469 cases of barbiturate overdose, with 1165 deaths (Sharpless 1970), whilst in the United Kingdom, between 1965 and 1970, there were 12 354 deaths attributed directly to barbiturates (Barraclough 1974). These data should not surprise us, since in a period of just one year (1968), 24.7 million prescriptions for barbiturates were issued in the United Kingdom (Plant 1981). In view of these data, the Advisory Council Campaign in Britain took measures restricting the prescription of these drugs. Meanwhile, the prescription of prolonged-acting sedative barbiturates was strongly opposed through citizens' action campaigns such as CURB (Campaign on the Use and Restrictions of Barbiturates), especially active during the 1970s."
"Top 10 Mistresses: #4, Marilyn Monroe". Time. July 1, 2009. Retrieved September 25, 2014. "Monroe died later in 1962 of a drug overdose, but tales about her alleged fling with the President grew increasingly tall. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover tried to prove that the man on a secret FBI sex tape of Monroe was Kennedy, but he lacked definitive proof. Others claim Kennedy was involved in her death. Needless to say, the rumors are even less substantiated than the affair itself."
Kennedy, John (March 30, 2022). "John F. Kennedy Moon Speech – Rice Stadium". US National Aeronautical & Space Administration.
Griswold, Eliza (September 21, 2012). "How 'Silent Spring' Ignited the Environmental Movement". The New York Times. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
Meyer, Michal; Kenworthy, Bob (February 2, 2016). "DDT: The Britney Spears of Chemicals (Audio Podcast)". Science History Institute. Retrieved March 20, 2018. "Americans have had a long, complicated relationship with the pesticide DDT, or dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, if you want to get fancy. First we loved it, then we hated it, then we realized it might not be as bad as we thought. But we'll never restore it to its former glory. And couldn't you say the same about America's once-favorite pop star?"
James Meredith (August 7, 2012). A Mission from God: A Memoir and Challenge for America. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-7474-3.
"The Integration of Ole Miss (Historical video and text resources)". history.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved June 20, 2014.
"The Beatles' 'Love Me Do' Hits the Public Domain in Europe". Rolling Stone. January 12, 2013.
Hotten, Russell (October 4, 2012). "The Beatles at 50: From Fab Four to fabulously wealthy". BBC. Retrieved November 18, 2015.
Viner, Brian (February 11, 2012). "The man who rejected the Beatles". The Independent. Archived from the original on May 7, 2022. Retrieved February 9, 2016. "Exactly 50 years ago, Decca's Dick Rowe turned down the Fab Four, so heading an unenviable club of talent-spotters who passed up their biggest chance. But is it all an urban myth? A new book suggests so"
Dobbs, Michael; Dobbs, Rachel (October 8, 2012). "Thirteen Days in October (Annotated Slideshow)". Foreignpolicy.com. Foreign Policy. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
"Aerial Photograph of Missiles in Cuba (1962)". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved June 4, 2014.
Kennedy, John (October 22, 1962). "JFK Addresses Nation". YouTube. US Government (original). Retrieved February 15, 2017. "Complete and uncut footage of speech."
Anderson, Walter Truett. The Upstart Spring: Esalen and the American Awakening, Addison Wesley Publishing Company (1983, 2004) p. 64
Fox, Margalit (August 13, 2012). "Helen Gurley Brown, Who Gave 'Single Girl' a Life in Full, Dies at 90". The New York Times. Retrieved November 30, 2015. "As Cosmopolitan's editor from 1965 until 1997, Ms. Brown was widely credited with being the first to introduce frank discussions of sex into magazines for women. The look of women's magazines today – a sea of voluptuous models and titillating cover lines – is due in no small part to her influence."
Isserman, Maurice (June 19, 2009). "Essay Michael Harrington: Warrior on Poverty". The New York Times. Retrieved July 13, 2014. "Among the book's readers, reputedly, was John F. Kennedy, who in the fall of 1963 began thinking about proposing antipoverty legislation. After Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon Johnson took up the issue, calling in his 1964 State of the Union address for an "unconditional war on poverty." Sargent Shriver headed the task force charged with drawing up the legislation, and invited Harrington to Washington as a consultant."
Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (November 11, 2001). "Ken Kesey, Author of 'Cuckoo's Nest,' Who Defined the Psychedelic Era, Dies at 66". The New York Times. Retrieved July 7, 2014. "Ken Kesey, the Pied Piper of the psychedelic era, who was best known as the author of the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, died yesterday in a hospital in Eugene, Ore., said his wife, Faye. He was 66 and lived in Pleasant Hill, Ore."
Hoffman, Jordan (November 19, 2015). "'One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest' Still Resonates 40 Years Later". biography.com. A&E Television Networks, LLC. Archived from the original on February 1, 2019. Retrieved June 20, 2016. "Milos Forman's adaptation of Ken Kesey's novel 'One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest' is, in some ways, the essential film document about the 1960s counter-culture."
Dunlap, David (January 4, 2012). "Charles W. Bailey, Journalist and Political Novelist, Dies at 82". The New York Times. Retrieved February 7, 2015. "Written with Fletcher Knebel and published in 1962, Seven Days in May tells of an attempted coup by the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in May 1974 after the president negotiates a disarmament treaty with Russia. It was at the top of The New York Times's best-seller list in early 1963 and was made into a movie, with Burt Lancaster, Kirk Douglas and Fredric March, in 1964."
Jesse Walker (June 1, 2004). Rebels on the Air: An Alternative History of Radio in America. NYU Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8147-8477-8.
Hinckley, David (September 20, 2012). "Documentary 'Radio Unnameable' captures the wee-hour WBAI broadcasts of Bob Fass". New York Daily News. The New York Daily News. Retrieved July 24, 2014. "Legendary jock entertained and informed New Yorkers in the '60s and '70s by bringing on guests like Bob Dylan and Abbie Hoffman."
Paul Lovelace & Jessica Wolfson (2012). Radio Unnameable (Film Documentary). New York: Lost Footage Films.
Wilson, Robert Anton (1992). Cosmic Trigger I: Final Secret of the Illuminati. Scottsdale, AZ: New Falcon Publications. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-56184-003-8.a
Cochrane, Kira (May 6, 2013). "1963: the beginning of the feminist movement – Fifty years on, we look back at the year that signalled the beginning of the modern era". The Guardian Limited. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
"Louie Louie (The Song)". fbi.gov. US Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved May 12, 2016. "In 1963, a rock group named the Kingsmen recorded the song "Louie, Louie." The popularity of the song and difficulty in discerning the lyrics led some people to suspect the song was obscene. The FBI was asked to investigate whether or not those involved with the song violated laws against the interstate transportation of obscene material. The limited investigation lasted from February to May 1964 and discovered no evidence of obscenity."
McArdle, Terence (April 29, 2015). "Jack Ely, whose garbled version of 'Louie Louie' became a sensation, dies". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 13, 2016. "According to rock music historian Peter Blecha, advances in recording technology have revealed an actual obscenity on the Kingsmen's recording of "Louie Louie." About 54 seconds in, Blecha said, Easton uses a barely audible profanity after fumbling with a drumstick."
File:President Kennedy American University Commencement Address June 10, 1963.jpg
"The Burning Monk: A defining moment photographed by AP's Malcolm Browne". ap.org. Associated Press. 2013. Retrieved March 1, 2015. "Nevertheless, it was that picture which shocked President John F. Kennedy, who immediately ordered a review of his administration's Vietnam policy. The review led to more troops, not fewer."
Schudel, Matt (August 28, 2012). "Malcolm W. Browne, Pulitzer-winning journalist who captured indelible Vietnam image, dies at 81". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 1, 2015. "He chronicled the regime of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem and the homegrown opposition led by Buddhist monks. On June 11, 1963, Mr. Browne was present when an elderly monk named Thich Quang Duc, wearing sandals and a robe, calmly sat cross-legged on a cushion in the center of an intersection in Saigon. Other monks poured fuel over him, and the monk struck a match and was immediately engulfed in flames. Mr. Browne shot roll after roll of film, documenting the self-immolation."
Cosgrove, Ben; Loengard, John (June 11, 2013). "Behind the Picture: Medgar Evers' Funeral, June 1963 (Story and Photos)". Time. Archived from the original on July 28, 2014. Retrieved June 25, 2014. "In its June 28, 1963, issue, LIFE confronted the assassination with a combination of scorn (for the Klan and for white supremacists in general), anger (at the waste of such a life as Evers') and an occasionally sardonic venom."
"School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v. Schempp". Cornell University Law School / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved February 27, 2015. "Syllabus: Because of the prohibition of the First Amendment against the enactment by Congress of any law "respecting an establishment of religion," which is made applicable to the States by the Fourteenth Amendment, no state law or school board may require that passages from the Bible be read or that the Lord's Prayer be recited in the public schools of a State at the beginning of each school day – even if individual students may be excused from attending or participating in such exercises upon written request of their parents."
"God in America – People & Ideas: Madalyn Murray O'Hair". US PBS. Retrieved February 27, 2015. "Madalyn Murray O'Hair was an outspoken advocate of atheism and the founder of the organization American Atheists. In 1960 O'Hair gained notoriety when she sued Baltimore public schools for requiring students to read from the Bible and to recite the Lord's Prayer at school exercises."
Scherman, Rowland (July 31, 2009). "Dylan In Pictures: Newport 1963". NPR. US National Public Radio. Retrieved February 27, 2015. "That seminal moment at the 1963 Newport Folk Festival, Dylan went from zero to hero in the course of a weekend."
Ulrich Adelt (2010). Blues Music in the Sixties: A Story in Black and White. Rutgers University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-8135-4750-3.
Suarez, Ray (August 28, 2003). "Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" Remembered". pbs.org. Public Broadcasting Service (US). Retrieved May 16, 2014.
"Test Ban Treaty (1963):On August 5, 1963, the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. After Senate approval, the treaty that went into effect on October 10, 1963, banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, in outer space, and under water". ourdocuments.gov. The National Archives and Records Administration, et al (US). Retrieved June 4, 2014.
Richard A. Reuss (2000). American Folk Music and Left-wing Politics, 1927–1957. Scarecrow Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8108-3684-6.
"Harvard Sex Orgies Disclosed by Dean". The Chicago Tribune. UPI. November 1, 1963. Archived from the original on November 4, 2015. Retrieved November 14, 2015.
Robert S. McNamara; James Blight; Robert K. Brigham; Thomas J. Biersteker; Col. Herbert Schandler (November 2, 2007). Argument Without End: In Search of Answers to the Vietnam Tragedy. PublicAffairs. p. 328. ISBN 978-1-58648-621-1. Archived from the original on March 19, 2015.
Lane, Mark (1966). Rush to Judgment (Paperback, 1992 ed.). New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. p. 7. ISBN 1-56025-043-7.
Marrs, Jim (1989). "Preface". Crossfire: The Plot That Killed Kennedy (1st Paperback, 1990 ed.). New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 0-88184-648-1.
Jeanette Leech (2010). Seasons They Change: The Story of Acid and Psychedelic Folk. Jawbone Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-906002-32-9.
Johnson, Lyndon Baines. "Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union. January 8, 1964". .presidency.ucsb.edu. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley – The American Presidency Project via UCSB. Archived from the original on October 18, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2015. "Let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined; as the session which enacted the most far-reaching tax cut of our time; as the session which declared all-out war on human poverty and unemployment in these United States; as the session which finally recognized the health needs of all our older citizens; as the session which reformed our tangled transportation and transit policies; as the session which achieved the most effective, efficient foreign aid program ever; and as the session which helped to build more homes, more schools, more libraries, and more hospitals than any single session of Congress in the history of our Republic."
"For LBJ, The War On Poverty Was Personal". NPR. January 8, 2014. Retrieved February 12, 2015. "President Lyndon Johnson stood in the Capitol on Jan. 8, 1964, and, in his first State of the Union address, committed the nation to a war on poverty. "We shall not rest until that war is won," Johnson said. "The richest nation on Earth can afford to win it. We cannot afford to lose it." It was an effort that had been explored under President Kennedy, but it firmly – and quickly – took shape under Johnson."
Sanburn, Josh (May 9, 2011). "The 10 Best Bob Dylan Songs: 'The Times They Are A-Changin'". Retrieved November 7, 2015.
"500 Greatest Songs of All Time: 59 Bob Dylan, 'The Times They Are A-Changin'". Rolling Stone. Retrieved November 7, 2015.
"Historical Highlights: The 24th Amendment". history.house.gov. U.S. House of Representatives (History, Art & Archives). Retrieved March 1, 2015. "On this date in 1962, the House passed the 24th Amendment, outlawing the poll tax as a voting requirement in federal elections, by a vote of 295 to 86. At the time, five states maintained poll taxes which disproportionately affected African-American voters: Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Texas. The poll tax exemplified "Jim Crow" laws, developed in the post-Reconstruction South, which aimed to disenfranchise black voters and institute segregation."
"Beatlemania Comes to the United States". rockhall.com. Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. February 3, 2015. Retrieved March 1, 2015. "In Britain, "I Want to Hold Your Hand" saw its official release on December 5, 1963, reaching Number One the following week. It held the position for five weeks. Soon thereafter, American DJs began spinning the import single and the immediate, positive response prompted Capitol to not only bump up the release date to December 26, but also increase the press run from 200,000 copies to one million. A media blitz followed, as reporters from the Associated Press, CBS, Life, New York Times and more were assigned to cover the Beatles. "I Want to Hold Your Hand" reached Number One on the Billboard charts on February 1, 1964, and remained on the Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks."
Barry Miles (2009). The British Invasion. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4027-6976-4.
"New York School Boycott". crdl.usg.org. Civil Rights Digital Library/Digital Library of Georgia. Retrieved March 17, 2017.
Khan, Yasmeen (February 3, 2016). "Demand for School Integration Leads to Massive 1964 Boycott – In New York City". wnyc.org. Retrieved March 17, 2017. "After hearing too many "vague promises" from the New York City Board of Education to integrate the schools, civil rights activists in 1964 called for swift action: desegregate the city's schools and improve the inferior conditions of many that enrolled black and Latino students. To force the issue, they staged a one-day school boycott on Feb. 3, when approximately 460,000 students refused to go to school."
"The Beatles". edsullivan.com. SOFA Entertainment. 2010. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Harding, Barrie (February 8, 1964). "5,000 scream 'welcome' to the Beatles". Daily Mirror. No. 18,704. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved December 24, 2015.
Trust, Gary (April 4, 2013). "April 4, 1964: The Beatles Control Entire Top Five On Billboard Hot 100". Billboard. Retrieved August 11, 2016. "On the Billboard Hot 100 dated April 4, 1964, 49 years ago today, the Beatles made history as the only act ever to occupy the chart's top five positions in a week. With a 27–1 second-week blast to the top for "Can't Buy Me Love," the Fab Four locked up the chart's entire top five: No. 1, "Can't Buy Me Love" No. 2, "Twist and Shout" No. 3, "She Loves You" No. 4, "I Want to Hold Your Hand" No. 5, "Please Please Me""
Bronson, p. 145.
The New York Times (June 10, 2014). The New York Times The Times of the Sixties: The Culture, Politics, and Personalities that Shaped the Decade. Running Press. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1-60376-366-0.
France, Lisa Respers (March 1, 2018). "All the best actor Oscar winners through the years". CNN. Retrieved June 3, 2018.
"The 1964 Cleveland schools' boycott to protest segregation: Black History Month". February 24, 2013.
Winner, David (May 19, 2009). "Robert Jasper Grootveld: Artist and activist who helped found the Dutch Provos in the 1960s". www.independent.co.uk. The Independent. Retrieved December 3, 2016. "No single person can be said to have created the worldwide cultural phenomenon we call "the Sixties". But the Dutch anti-smoking "magician" and voodoo showman Robert Jasper Grootveld has a better claim than most. In the early Sixties, his surreal, dadaist "happenings" in Amsterdam electrified the city's bored youth and led to the creation of the playful Provo movement (short for "provocation"). With the charismatic, flamboyantly transvestite Grootveld as a spokesman, Provo was a catalyst for cultural revolution. The group provided free bicycles, subverted a royal wedding and humiliated the stiff-necked Dutch establishment and Amsterdam police force so effectively that both groups – and the country – underwent a near-total personality change. Provo lasted only from 1965 to 1967 but the spirit of what Grootveld dubbed "International Magic Centre Amsterdam" broke old Holland, inspired hippies in San Francisco and musicians and artists in London and paved the way, among other things, for the summer of love, Dutch total football and the green movement."
International Institute of Social History – Grootveld flyers
Enfield, Robert. "Photographs:Sheraton Palace Demonstration, May 1964". cdlib.org. University of California. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
James J. Farrell (January 1997). The Spirit of the Sixties: Making Postwar Radicalism. Psychology Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-415-91385-0.
Peter Bacon Hales (April 11, 2014). Outside the Gates of Eden: The Dream of America from Hiroshima to Now. University of Chicago Press. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-226-12861-0.
Green; Nicholas J. Karolides (January 1, 2009). Encyclopedia of Censorship. Infobase Publishing. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-4381-1001-1.
"Jacobellis v. Ohio – 378 U.S. 184 (1964)". supreme.justia.com. justia.com. Retrieved July 9, 2014.
"Landmark Legislation: The Civil Rights Act of 1964". senate.gov. Retrieved August 11, 2016.
Krock, p. 411
The Beatles (September 1, 2000). The Beatles Anthology. Chronicle Books. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-8118-2684-6.
Cusick, Rick (August 28, 2014). "Bob Dylan Smoked Out The Beatles 50 Years Ago Today". hightimes.com. High Times. Retrieved October 4, 2016. "Perhaps the mostly influential sesh in history happened on August 28, 1964 when Bob Dylan got The Beatles high at The Delmonico Hotel in New York City. While this was not technically The Moptops first-time toking – they shared a joint in Hamburg but couldn't agree whether or not they got high – they definitely copped a buzz with Dylan in New York."
NFO PROTEST CANCELLED Truck Crushes Two to Death
"Visual History: Free Speech Movement, 1964-Mario Savio addresses the crowd". Retrieved March 1, 2015. "Mario Savio addresses the crowd Mario Savio climbs on top of the police car containing Jack Weinberg to address the crowd of demonstrators. Savio demands Weinberg's release and the lifting of University prohibitions against political activity on campus."
Robert Cohen (July 30, 2009). Freedom's Orator: Mario Savio and the Radical Legacy of the 1960s. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976634-5.
Seth Rosenfeld (August 21, 2012). Subversives: The FBI's War on Student Radicals, and Reagan's Rise to Power. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-1-4299-6932-1.
"The Nobel Peace Prize 1964". nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved March 1, 2015. "He is the first person in the Western world to have shown us that a struggle can be waged without violence. He is the first to make the message of brotherly love a reality in the course of his struggle, and he has brought this message to all men, to all nations and races. Today we pay tribute to Martin Luther King, the man who has never abandoned his faith in the unarmed struggle he is waging, who has suffered for his faith, who has been imprisoned on many occasions, whose home has been subject to bomb attacks, whose life and the lives of his family have been threatened, and who nevertheless has never faltered."
Barry Miles (2009). The British Invasion. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-4027-6976-4.
"Election of 1964". University of California, Santa Barbara / American Presidency Project. Archived from the original on March 13, 2015. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
Moylan, Brian (December 22, 2014). "'Offensive' Is the New 'Obscene'". Time. Retrieved March 1, 2015. "On Dec. 21, 1964, Bruce was sentenced to four months in a workhouse for a set he did in a New York comedy club that included a bit about Eleanor Roosevelt's "nice tits...""
Robert Cohen; Reginald E. Zelnik (2002). The Free Speech Movement: Reflections on Berkeley in the 1960s. University of California Press. p. 534. ISBN 978-0-520-23354-6.
Jackman, Michael (December 1, 2014). "Mario Savio's 'bodies upon the gears' speech – 50 years later". metrotimes.com. Detroit Metro Times. Retrieved March 1, 2015. "It's a short but bold and defiant oration that says free human beings aren't going to be pushed around by anybody, from lawmakers and police to liberals and labor leaders. Standing in front of a crowd of 4,000 people, Savio described his meeting with university officials, who compared the president of the university to the president of a corporation."
Drash, Wayne (April 28, 2010). "Malcolm X killer freed after 44 years". CNN. Retrieved October 4, 2016. "Malcolm X is best known as the fiery leader of the Nation of Islam who denounced whites as "blue-eyed devils." But at the end of his life, Malcolm X changed his views toward whites and discarded the Nation of Islam's ideology in favor of orthodox Islam. In doing so, he feared for his own life from within the Nation."
W.J. Rorabaugh Professor of History University of Washington (May 4, 1989). Berkeley at War : The 1960s: The 1960s. Oxford University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-19-802252-7.
Enfield, Robert. "Photographs:Filthy Speech Rally, Spring, 1965". cdlib.org. University of California. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
Spencer C. Tucker (May 20, 2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 775. ISBN 978-1-85109-961-0.
Barry Miles (2009). The British Invasion. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-4027-6976-4.
"The Yardbirds Announce New Lineup – Including Pre-Eric Clapton Guitarist Top Topham – and 2015 Tour Dates". guitarworld.com. February 10, 2015. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
Raasch, Chuck (May 16, 2014). "Never trust anyone over 30? A second thought". stltoday.com. St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved May 26, 2014.
Matthew Greenwald (April 30, 2002). Go Where You Wanna Go: The Oral History of The Mamas and The Papas. Cooper Square Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-4616-2290-1.
Herbert, Ian (September 8, 2006). "Revealed: Dentist who introduced Beatles to LSD". The Independent. Archived from the original on May 7, 2022. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
Cromelin, Richard (October 6, 2011). "Bert Jansch dies at 67; Scottish singer-guitarist influenced rock, folk greats". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 6, 2018.
Martin Charles Strong (2002). The Great Scots Musicography: The Complete Guide to Scotland's Music Makers. Birlinn, Limited. ISBN 978-1-84183-041-4.
Roger Chapman (2010). Culture Wars: An Encyclopedia of Issues, Viewpoints, and Voices. M.E. Sharpe. p. 545. ISBN 978-0-7656-2250-1.
Greenfield, Robert (March 14, 2011). "Owsley Stanley: The King of LSD". Rolling Stone. Retrieved February 6, 2015. "By May 1965, he was back in the Bay Area with 3,600 capsules of extraordinarily pure LSD, dubbed "Owsley" by a pot-dealing folk guitarist friend. "I never set out to 'turn on the world,' as has been claimed by many," Owsley says."
McGee, Rosie (1969). "Owsley Stanley, left, with Jerry Garcia of the Grateful Dead in a 1969 publicity photograph". The New York Times. Retrieved February 6, 2015.
"The Pacifica Radio/UC Berkeley Social Activism Sound Recording Project:Anti-Vietnam War Protests in the San Francisco Bay Area & Beyond". University of California Berkeley Library. Retrieved December 8, 2016.
Thompson, Hunter (March 2, 2005). "The Motorcycle Gangs: A portrait of an outsider underground". The Nation. Retrieved July 6, 2018. "This article first appeared in the May 17, 1965 issue."
"Unforgettable Change: 1960s: 1960s in Vietnam and in Berkeley (Text and Audio Content)". museumca.org. Oakland Museum of California. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved June 20, 2014.
Enfield, Robert. "Photographs:Vietnam Day, Spring, 1965". cdlib.org. University of California. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
Knopper, Steve (September 1, 2015). "Colorado's Famous Historic Artist Commune". 5280.com. 5280 The Denver Magazine. Retrieved December 30, 2015. "At the time, the idea of a commune – a place where young artists would live off sales of their work and share a bank account to buy food and supplies – was new and exciting. The concept attracted those who identified with the blossoming '60s counterculture. Prominent figures in the movement, including eventual Woodstock Nation members such as LSD guru Timothy Leary and the Doors' Jim Morrison, ventured to this plot of land in Trinidad. What they found when they arrived was a utopia born from the zeitgeist of 1960s America – a place unlike anywhere else in Colorado."
"America and the Utopian Dream – Utopian Communities". brbl-archive.library.yale.edu.
William E. Hudson (December 28, 2007). The Libertarian Illusion: Ideology, Public Policy and the Assault on the Common Good. SAGE Publications. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-4833-0122-8.
"Margaret Sanger (1879–1966)". ocp.hul.harvard.edu. Harvard University Library. Retrieved August 13, 2014. "In 1965, the Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut legalized contraception for married couples."
CNN (August 7, 2014). "The Times they are a Changin'". The Sixties (Documentary Series). CNN.
Hodgkinson, Will (June 13, 2005). "Snapshot: Allen Ginsberg at the Albert Hall". The Guardian Limited. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
Gary Graff; Daniel Durchholz (June 12, 2012). Rock 'n' Roll Myths: The True Stories Behind the Most Infamous Legends. Voyageur Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7603-4230-5.
Righthand, Jess (July 23, 2010). "July 25, 1965: Dylan Goes Electric at the Newport Folk Festival". smithsonian.com. Retrieved February 14, 2015. "It was during that concert, 45 years ago today, that Bob Dylan plugged in his electric guitar, an action that would alter the landscape of American popular music for generations to come. On that day, as boos, shouts and cries for "the old Dylan" rose above the music, Dylan departed from his acoustic roots and ventured into the realm of rock 'n' roll, a genre generally disdained as commercial and mainstream by Dylan's bohemian peers of the 1960s American folk music revival. In doing this, the artist forged the way for the folk-rock genre, merging his lyrical songwriting style with the hard-driving sounds of rock."
"I Ain't Marching Anymore by Phil Ochs".
"Watts Riots". crdl.usg.edu. Civil Rights Digital Library/Digital Library of Georgia. Retrieved April 28, 2018. "The Watts Riot, which raged for six days and resulted in more than forty million dollars worth of property damage, was both the largest and costliest urban rebellion of the Civil Rights era. The riot spurred from an incident on August 11, 1965 when Marquette Frye, a young African American motorist, was pulled over and arrested by Lee W. Minikus, a white California Highway Patrolman, for suspicion of driving while intoxicated. As a crowd on onlookers gathered at the scene of Frye's arrest, strained tensions between police officers and the crowd erupted in a violent exchange. The outbreak of violence that followed Frye's arrest immediately touched off a large-scale riot centered in the commercial section of Watts, a deeply impoverished African American neighborhood in South Central Los Angeles. For several days, rioters overturned and burned automobiles and looted and damaged grocery stores, liquor stores, department stores, and pawnshops. Over the course of the six-day riot, over 14,000 California National Guard troops were mobilized in South Los Angeles and a curfew zone encompassing over forty-five miles was established in an attempt to restore public order. All told, the rioting claimed the lives of thirty-four people, resulted in more than one thousand reported injuries, and almost four thousand arrests before order was restored on August 17. Throughout the crisis, public officials advanced the argument that the riot was the work outside agitators; however, an official investigation, prompted by Governor Pat Brown, found that the riot was a result of the Watts community's longstanding grievances and growing discontentment with high unemployment rates, substandard housing, and inadequate schools. Despite the reported findings of the gubernatorial commission, following the riot, city leaders and state officials failed to implement measures to improve the social and economic conditions of African Americans living in the Watts neighborhood."
Miles, Barry (1998). The Beatles: A Diary. Omnibus Press. ISBN 978-0-7119-9196-5.
Montagne, Renee (December 12, 2012). "Music and Mayhem in 'Laurel Canyon'". NPR. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
Robinson, Lisa (February 28, 2015). "An Oral History of Laurel Canyon, the 60s and 70s Music Mecca". Vanity Fair/Conde Nast. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
Reed, Ryan (September 15, 2015). "Paul on Drums, George on Bass: 10 Great Beatles Instrument Swaps". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 19, 2018. "McCartney's melodic bass work is a signature of the Beatles' oeuvre, but Harrison did a great job approximating it on the psychedelic Revolver meditation "She Said She Said" – one of the band's only tracks not to feature Sir Paul. "I think we'd had a barney or something, and I said, 'Oh, f*ck you!' and they said, 'Well, we'll do it,'" McCartney told Barry Miles in the 1998 biography Many Years From Now. The song was inspired by Lennon's 1965 LSD trip with Byrds members Roger McGuinn and David Crosby, during which actor Peter Fonda told a frightened Harrison that he knew "what it's like to be dead." And the result plays like both a celebration and a mockery of the acid movement, driven by Harrison's stoned guitar shrapnel and dextrous, Macca-styled bass runs."
Cornish, Audie (August 28, 2015). "A New Ride Down Dylan's 'Highway': What Do Millennials Think Of The Album?". NPR. US National Public Radio. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
Rothman, Lily (October 15, 2015). "This Photo Shows the Vietnam Draft-Card Burning That Started a Movement". Time. Retrieved April 28, 2018. "David Miller was not the first person to destroy a draft card. As protests against the Vietnam War increased in the 1960s, the destruction of Selective Service registration certificates became common enough that in August of 1965 President Johnson signed a law making it a federal crime to destroy or mutilate the cards. But after Miller publicly burned his draft card on Oct. 15, 1965 – exactly 50 years ago – he became the first person to be prosecuted under that law and a symbol of the growing movement against the war."
Howard Smead (November 1, 2000). Don't Trust Anyone Over Thirty: The First Four Decades of the Baby Boom. iUniverse. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-595-12393-3.
Kilgallen, Dorothy (June 11, 1963). "Dorothy Kilgallen's Voice of Broadway". Syndicated column via The Montreal Gazette. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "New York hippies have a new kick – baking marijuana in cookies..."
"Dandridge death caused by drugs". UPI via Baltimore Afro-American. November 20, 1965. Retrieved June 19, 2016.
"Starring Dorothy Dandridge". Turner Classic Movies. Turner Classic Movies. Archived from the original on October 24, 2011. Retrieved June 19, 2016. "She was beautiful, she could dance, she could sing, and she could act. Most importantly, she had that indefinable magnetism that attracts an audience and holds their attention. In short, she had everything it took to be a major star in the 1950s. Everything, that is, except white skin."
Kathleen Fearn-Banks (November 15, 2005). Historical Dictionary of African-American Television. Scarecrow Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8108-6522-8.
Fleming, Colin (September 25, 2015). "Revisiting Beatles' Wonderfully Wacky Cartoon Series, 50 Years Later". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 28, 2018. "Even Beatles completists sometimes have a blind spot when it comes to the band's eponymous cartoon, which ran on ABC for four years – starting exactly 50 years ago, on September 25th, 1965. If you like your Beatles animated, chances are your thing is for the 1968 film Yellow Submarine, the rare cinematic venture that works just as well for the kiddies as the adults."
Report (August 2, 2013). "Hot 100 55th Anniversary: Every No. 1 Song (1958–2013)". Billboard. Retrieved December 7, 2015. "Eve Of Destruction, Barry McGuire, 9/25/1965"
Chawkins, Steve (November 17, 2015). "P.F. Sloan dies at 70; wrote '60s protest song 'Eve of Destruction'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 7, 2015.
Unterberger, Richie. "The Yardbirds – Biography". AllMusic. Rovi Corp. Retrieved December 7, 2015.
Rosenkranz, Patrick. "The East Village Other: The Rise of Underground Comix and the Alternative Press". eastvillageother.org. The Local East Village, NYU Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute, Fales Library and Special Collections, et al. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
Wiegand, David (February 6, 2016). "Dan Hicks, a true original of S.F. music scene, dies at 74". San Francisco Chronicle via sfgate.com. Retrieved July 4, 2016. "Today the band is little recalled by those who weren't there, but the Charlatans were the first important new rock band in San Francisco when LSD first rolled through town and things started getting weird. When the five-man band of Edwardian dandies in immaculate vintage wear returned from playing all summer 1965 at the Red Dog Saloon in Virginia City, the Charlatans were the headline attraction at A Tribute to Dr. Strange, the Longshoreman's Hall dance/concert that was ground zero for the '60s San Francisco rock scene. ...Farther down the program that evening was another new band just starting out at a former pizza parlor in the Marina with the peculiar name of Jefferson Airplane."
Jones, Kevin (February 6, 2016). "Dan Hicks, San Francisco Folk Jazz Pioneer, Dead at 74". kqed.org. KQED. Retrieved March 3, 2017. "In 1965, Hicks would become the drummer for The Charlatans, who, along with groups such as the Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead, would help define the city's psychedelic sound. Later, rock historians would cite the group's extended residency at the Red Dog Saloon in Nevada in the summer of '65 as being the precursor to San Francisco's LSD-focused rock shows of the later '60s because of the trippy rock posters used to advertise the residency, and the fact that the band would ingest psychedelic drugs while playing."
Gray, Madison (August 11, 2011). "All-TIME 100 Nonfiction Books: #13, The Autobiography of Malcolm X". Time. Retrieved September 21, 2014. "Malcolm X predicted that he would not live to see its publication, a prophecy fulfilled as friction between himself and the Nation of Islam, and a subsequent falling-out culminated in his 1965 assassination. But the pages chronicling the years leading up to it reveal the world of a man who had gone from being a hustler to being one of history's most controversial civil rights icons."
Manning, Marable; Goodman, Amy (May 21, 2007). "Manning Marable on "Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention" (transcribed from radio program)". democracynow.org. Retrieved September 21, 2014. "But what we do know that is true is that when Malcolm is assassinated on February 21, 1965, within two-and-a-half weeks the original publisher, Doubleday, exes the deal on the book. And in early March '65, they cancel the contract. That's why the book is published at the end of the year by Grove, not Doubleday. It was the most disastrous decision in corporate publishing history. They lost millions of dollars on this."
"The Autobiography of Malcolm X: Epilogue By Alex Haley – Minister Malcolm X – The Honorable Elijah Muhammad". www.alex-haley.com. Archived from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2016.
Mitchell, Greg (November 13, 2010). "When Antiwar Protest Turned Fatal: The Ballad of Norman Morrison". The Nation.
Ruane, Michael (November 1, 2015). "Vietnam critic's end was the start of family's pain". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 7, 2016. "Morrison had set himself ablaze 40 feet from the Pentagon office window of then-Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara, one of the chief organizers of the U.S. involvement in the war. Years later, a contrite McNamara wrote that Morrison's death was a tragedy "for me and the country.""
Donna E. Alvermann (2002). Adolescents and Literacies in a Digital World. Peter Lang. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-8204-5573-0.
"The Who and the New Generation". historyengine.richmond.edu. University of Richmond (Digital Scholarship Lab). Retrieved July 26, 2014. ""Things they do look awful c-cold," Daltry continued stuttering, "Hope I die before I get old." Daltry then screamed, drilling the purpose of the song into everyone's heads, "This is my generation!" And this truly was the youths' generation. All the years of old men from bygone eras had to pave way to Roger Daltry's generation, for the young men and women of the Western world were finally speaking up and letting their voices be heard. "It's my generation, baby," Daltry repeated his mantra."
Reinholz, Mary (November 26, 2015). "Sixties draft-card burners recall inflammatory time at Maryhouse panel talk". The Villager/NYC Community Media. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
"We Look Back at Detroit's Alternative Paper 'The Fifth Estate', Founded 50 years Ago". wdet.org. WDET 101.9 and Wayne State University. September 4, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2016. "Text and Link to Audio Program"
Jarnow, Jesse (November 30, 2015). "Acid Tests Turn 50: Wavy Gravy, Merry Prankster Ken Babbs Look Back". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 28, 2018. "This week in Santa Cruz, California, a concert, reading and site dedication will commemorate the 50th anniversary of Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters' first LSD-fueled Acid Test, held in the small neighborhood of Soquel on November 27th, 1965."
Hyde, Justin (June 24, 2013). "June 24: Ralph Nader wins Senate passage of Highway Safety Act on this date in 1966". autos.yahoo.com. Yahoo News / Motoramic. Retrieved June 25, 2014. "Article includes video of Nader reflecting on auto safety legislation."
Nader, Ralph (1965). Unsafe at Any Speed. New York: Grossman Publishers. ISBN 978-1561290505.
US NHTSA. "Highway Safety Act of 1966, 23 USC Chapter 4, As Amended by SAFETEA-LU Technical Corrections Act of 2008, Revision June 2008". nhtsa.gov. US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original on November 4, 2016. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
"The Mamas and the Papas, California Dreamin". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone Magazine. April 7, 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "#89 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time"
Alan Clayson (2002). The Yardbirds: The Band that Launched Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Jimmy Page. Backbeat Books. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-87930-724-0.
Myers, Marc (December 2, 2015). "The Beatles' 'Rubber Soul' Turns 50". The New York Times. Retrieved February 7, 2016. "For most American teens, the arrival of the Beatles' "Rubber Soul" 50 years ago was unsettling. Instead of cheerleading for love, the album's songs held cryptic messages about thinking for yourself, the hypnotic power of women, something called "getting high" and bedding down with the opposite sex. Clearly, growing up wasn't going to be easy."
Lavezzoli, Peter (2006). The Dawn of Indian Music in the West. New York, NY: Continuum. pp. 171–72. ISBN 0-8264-2819-3.
"Leary Arrested On Drug Charge". thecrimson.com. January 3, 1966. Retrieved April 28, 2018. "Timothy Leary, former lecturer in Clinical Psychology, was arrested at the Mexican border Dec. 23 and charged by U.S. customs officials with the illegal possession of marijuana. The agents seized five ounces of the drug. Leary, his two children, and two associates posted $2500 bond in Laredo, Tex., and were released pending action on the charge. In a telephone interview last night from his home in Millbrook, N.Y., Leary said he was unsure whether he would be indicted before a Texas grand jury and was awaiting word from his lawyer. Leary was dismissed from his Harvard lectureship in 1962 for absenting himself from classes without University permission. He and Richard Alpert, assistant professor of Clinical Psychology, who was dismissed at the same time, had been conducting experiments with psychedelic drugs. Alpert was fired because he violated an agreement with the University and administered drugs to an undergraduate."
William S. McConnell (May 14, 2004). The Counterculture Movement of the 1960s. Greenhaven Press. ISBN 978-0-7377-1819-5.
"Archived: Grateful Dead Live at Fillmore Auditorium on 1966-01-08". archive.org. 1967. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
Tom Wolfe (August 19, 2008). The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-4299-6114-1.
William McKeen (2000). Rock and Roll is Here to Stay: An Anthology. Norton. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-393-04700-4.
R. Serge Denisoff (January 1, 1975). Solid Gold: The Popular Record Industry. Transaction Publishers. p. 339. ISBN 978-1-4128-3479-7.
Getlen, Larry (November 19, 2016). "This guy made the best LSD of the '60s". New York Post. Retrieved November 19, 2016. "For many, the psychedelic Sixties began at an event called the Trips Festival that took place in San Francisco the third weekend of January 1966. At the three-day blowout, between 3,000 and 5,000 people tripping on LSD – more than had ever experienced the drug together – let loose. Grateful Dead guitarist Jerry Garcia called it "total, wall-to-wall gonzo lunacy", noting there were "people jumping off balconies onto blankets and then bouncing up and down". Hell's Angels fought with other biker gangs while a member of the Merry Pranksters, the experimental LSD crew of author Ken Kesey – who attended the event in a "silver space suit with a helmet" – tried to pull Janis Joplin and her band off stage after just one song."
Symonds, Alexandria (February 9, 2016). "'Valley of the Dolls,' by the Numbers". The New York Times. Retrieved June 18, 2016. "When the actress Jacqueline Susann was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1962, she made a deal with God: She would settle for 10 more years of life. . . if she could become the world's most popular writer. In the 12 years that followed, she became just that: the first novelist to achieve three consecutive New York Times No. 1 best sellers, and one of the richest self-made women in America. Her first novel, Valley of the Dolls, remains a pop-culture touchstone: a gleefully salacious story of friendship, sex, backstabbing and pills (or dolls) that won famous fans and detractors alike. (Susann, who died in 1974, made hundreds of appearances to support the novel and is credited with inventing the modern book tour.) Now celebrating its 50th anniversary, the tawdry tale of Anne Welles, Jennifer North and Neely O'Hara hasn't lost its punch. Here, a look at the vital stats behind one of the most talked-about books of all time."
Meltzer, Marisa (March 12, 2016). "'Valley of the Dolls,' Pitched to a New Generation". The New York Times. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
Barry Miles (March 1, 2010). London Calling: A Countercultural History of London since 1945. Atlantic Books, Limited. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-84887-554-8.
Weil, Andrew (March 14, 1966). "Leary Plans Drug Conviction Appeal, Urges Test Case of Marijuana Laws". thecrimson.com. Harvard Crimson. Retrieved February 25, 2016. "Timothy F. Leary, convicted Friday on marijuana charges, told the Boston CRIMSON yesterday that a "battery of lawyers" would appeal his sentence of 30 years imprisonment and a $30,000 fine. The former Harvard lecturer on Psychology said he would also try to make his case a legal test of current laws on marijuana."
"Song Stories: Eight Miles High". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on March 15, 2014. Retrieved June 19, 2014.
Richie Unterberger (2003). Eight Miles High: Folk-rock's Flight from Haight-Ashbury to Woodstock. Backbeat Books. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-87930-743-1.
Fong-Torres, Ben (July 23, 1970). "David Crosby: The Rolling Stone Interview". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved November 8, 2015.
Shirleene Robinson; Julie Ustinoff (January 17, 2012). The 1960s in Australia: People, Power and Politics. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 207. ISBN 978-1-4438-3676-0.
"Australian women protest conscription during Vietnam War [Save Our Sons (SOS)], 1965–1972". nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu. Swarthmore College, etal. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
David Luhrssen; Michael Larson (February 28, 2017). Encyclopedia of Classic Rock. ABC-CLIO. p. 305. ISBN 978-1-4408-3514-8.
McCormack, Ed (January 13, 2014). "A Last Waltz on the Wild Side". Vanity Fair. Retrieved March 16, 2017. "The doctor turned out to be the notorious society and show-business croaker Robert Freymann, supposedly the original "Dr. Feelgood." His past patients were rumored to range from J.F.K. to the Beatles, and a veritable Who's Who of prominent speed freaks still gathered in his office at an ungodly hour for his magic vitamins. ("Day or night he'll be there, any time at all," the Beatles sang in their musical tribute "Doctor Robert," which Paul McCartney admitted was inspired by the doctor "who kept New York high.")"
Erika Dyck (October 1, 2010). Psychedelic Psychiatry: LSD from Clinic to Campus. JHU Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4214-0075-4.
John Bassett Mccleary (May 22, 2013). Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s. Potter/TenSpeed/Harmony. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-307-81433-3.
"Timothy Leary: An Inventory of His Collection at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center". lib.utexas.edu. University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved February 25, 2016. "From as early as 1962 until 1970, Leary had been arrested and incarcerated on drug-related charges in Mexico, British West Indies, Texas, New York, Michigan, and California. In April 1966, the Millbrook estate was raided by local police, led by G. Gordon Liddy then of the Dutchess County Sheriff's Department, and four people, including Leary, were arrested for possession of drugs. Following his arrest, Leary, to avoid constant harassment, founded the League for Spiritual Discovery which was a religious movement that sought constitutional protection for the right to take LSD as a sacramental substance."
Simmons, Bob (February 19, 2012). "Bob Simmons on Timothy Leary and the Raid on Millbrook". The New York Times. Retrieved February 25, 2016. "Images of original EVO pages included."
"Neal Cassady at Timothy Leary's Millbrook Estate". corbisimages.com. Corbis. "Neal Cassady at Millbrook"
Christopher Partridge (June 20, 2006). The Re-Enchantment of the West, Vol 2: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture and Occulture. A&C Black. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-567-04123-4.
Jim DeRogatis (January 1, 2003). Turn on Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-634-05548-5.
"Students Keep Up Anti-Draft Sit-in at U.C." The Chicago Tribune. May 16, 1966. Retrieved April 7, 2016.
Charles L. Granata; Tony Asher (October 1, 2016). Wouldn't It Be Nice: Brian Wilson and the Making of the Beach Boys' Pet Sounds. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-61373-840-5.
Guriel, Jason (May 16, 2016). "How Pet Sounds Invented the Modern Pop Album". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved June 3, 2018. "It was a record of a great artist's mind, popular music's first long-form investigation into the psyche of an auteur."
Shapiro, Fred (2006). Yale Book of Quotations. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10798-2.
Bronson, p. 201
E .F. Schumacher: His Life and Thought by Barbara Wood. Harper & Row, 1984. ISBN 0-06-015356-3, (pp. 348–349).
"Resurgence • Magazine issues 1966–1969". www.resurgence.org.
Howard Friel (September 21, 2013). Chomsky and Dershowitz: On Endless War and the End of Civil Liberties. Interlink Publishing Group, Incorporated. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-62371-035-4.
Peter Hitchens (December 6, 2012). The War We Never Fought: The British Establishment's Surrender to Drugs. A&C Black. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-4411-7206-8.
Simon Wells (January 19, 2012). The Great Rolling Stones Drugs Bust. Music Sales Group. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-85712-711-2.
"Miranda v. Arizona; et al, Facts and Case Summary". uscourts.gov. Administrative Office of the US Courts. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
Dave Marsh; James Bernard (November 1, 1994). New Book of Rock Lists. Simon and Schuster. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-671-78700-4.
Chris Woodstra; John Bush; Stephen Thomas Erlewine (2007). All Music Guide Required Listening: Classic Rock. Backbeat Books. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-87930-917-6.
Anna L. Harvey (July 13, 1998). Votes Without Leverage: Women in American Electoral Politics, 1920–1970. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-521-59743-2.
Turner, Steve (2016). Beatles '66: The Revolutionary Year. New York, NY: HarperLuxe. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-06-249713-0.
Stuart Shea; Robert Rodriguez (2007). Fab Four FAQ: Everything Left to Know about the Beatles-- and More!. Hal Leonard. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-4234-2138-2.
Wolcott, James (February 5, 2016). "Why the Cinema of Swinging London Matters, 50 Years Later". Vanity Fair. Conde Nast. Retrieved February 25, 2016. "A heavy whiff of fascism attended the rise to cultural power of teenyboppers and twentysomethings and the emergence of the pop messiah. "We're more popular than Jesus now," John Lennon infamously told London's Evening Standard in 1966, a comment that caused little stir in England but set off a fury here in the States, especially in the Bible Belt, where Beatles records and souvenirs were fed to bonfires, much as disco albums would be a decade later."
Richie Unterberger (2002). Turn! Turn! Turn!: The '60s Folk-rock Revolution. Backbeat Books. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-87930-703-5.
"Beatles to avoid Philippines". No. 64th Year–No. 221. AP via Saskatoon Star-Phoenix. July 8, 1966. Retrieved December 29, 2015.
Skirboll, Aaron. "How a Psychedelic Concert Poster Rocked the World". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved February 9, 2020.
Thomson, Elizabeth (February 14, 2014). "Five myths about Bob Dylan". Washington Post. Retrieved November 7, 2015.
"Lenny Bruce, Uninhibited Comic, Found Dead in Hollywood Home". The New York Times. August 3, 1966. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
Larkin, Colin (2006). Encyclopedia of Popular Music. Vol. 1. Muze. p. 489. ISBN 0-19-531373-9.
Lavezzoli, Peter (2006). The Dawn of Indian Music in the West. New York, NY: Continuum. p. 175. ISBN 0-8264-2819-3.
David Scott Kastan (2006). The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-19-516921-8.
Ghosh, Palash (August 29, 2012). "Beatles Last Concert At Candlestick Park: The Dream Is Over (Analysis)". ibtimes.com. International Business Times/IBT Media. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
"The Monkees – 1967". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. May 11, 2012. Retrieved February 7, 2016. "In 1967 the Monkees sold more records than the Beatles and Rolling Stones combined..."
J. Harold Ellens; Thomas B. Roberts Ph.D. (August 18, 2015). The Psychedelic Policy Quagmire: Health, Law, Freedom, and Society: Health, Law, Freedom, and Society. ABC-CLIO. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-4408-3971-9.
"Love Pageant". pbs.org. American Experience/PBS. Archived from the original on October 24, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
Unknown (1966). "Love Pageant Rally". centerforhomemovies.org. Retrieved March 24, 2016. "About the Film On October 6, 1966, the day LSD was made illegal in California a group of hippies, said to fall somewhere around 1,000 in number, gathered on San Francisco's Panhandle for the Love Pageant Rally. The organizers, Allen Cohen and Michael Bowen, were key figures with the San Francisco Oracle (12 issues between September 1966 and February 1968), an underground publication credited for shaping Haight-Ashbury's burgeoning counterculture. Cohen and Bowen framed the event not as a protest, but as a celebration of "transcendental consciousness" and the "beauty of being." While less known than events that followed, this gathering marked a seminal moment in the counterculture revolution of the 1960s. This short document of the Love Pageant Rally features several notable figures from the Haight-Ashbury scene at the time. Striking in the film is how clearly the movement is on the cusp of both of breaking through and falling, if not apart, at least away from its idyllic core. There are two primary focuses in its three minutes: Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters and a performance by Big Brother and the Holding Company featuring Janis Joplin. Some groovy dancing does receive significant screen time, but for the sake of this brief essay, lets imagine they're grooving to Big Brother. The differences between where each stood in regards to their participation in hippie culture presents an interesting glimpse at the seismic shift the countercultural revolution rested at the edge of."
Domenic Priore; Brian Wilson; Van Dyke Parks (March 7, 2005). Smile: The Story of Brian Wilson's Lost Masterpiece. Music Sales Limited. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-78323-198-0.
Caswell, Tasha (September 14, 2014). ""Free Bobby, Free Ericka": The New Haven Black Panther Trials". wnpr.org. WNPR / Connecticut Public Broadcasting. Retrieved October 6, 2014. "The Black Panther Party, formed in 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, was a revolutionary socialist organization that strove to end the oppression of black people in the United States. It adopted a ten-point plan that called for autonomy, employment, free healthcare, decent housing, financial reparations for slavery, the end of police brutality against black people, the release of black prisoners from jails, fair trials, and black nationalism. In practice, the Panthers focused much of their attention on policing the police, often resorting to violence. The FBI had taken notice. J. Edgar Hoover said in 1968 that the Black Panther Party was "the greatest threat to the internal security of the country." By 1969, the Black Panther Party was well known nationally and had spread across the country."
United States. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security (1970). The Black Panther Party, its origin and development as reflected in its official weekly newspaper, the Black panther: black community news service; staff study, Ninety-first Congress, second session. U.S. Government Printing Office.
"The Black Panther". The British Library Board. Retrieved February 6, 2016. "The Black Panther: The Black Panther Party was a radical, revolutionary political group formed in October 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale. The Black Panther symbol had been used previously by the Lowndes County Freedom Organization which fought for black voting rights in Alabama."
"On this day in 1966: John meets Yoko". pbs.org/newshour. MacNeil / Lehrer Productions. November 9, 2013. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
Rasmussen, Cecilia (August 5, 2007). "Closing of club ignited the 'Sunset Strip riots'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 6, 2014. "Young rock fans take to the streets after the shuttering of Pandora's Box in 1966. The unrest inspired Stephen Stills' landmark anthem."
John Einarson (January 1, 2004). For What It's Worth: The Story of Buffalo Springfield. Cooper Square Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-8154-1281-6.
Lopez, Steve (November 16, 2016). "50 years ago, the Sunset Strip riots made L.A. the 'magical' epicenter of a revolution". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 16, 2016. "Los Angeles was the epicenter of rupture in the '60s – a civil rights uprising, a growing antiwar movement and a cultural revolution that was built in large part around the rock, folk and psychedelic music scene on Sunset Boulevard, which had quickly evolved from Frank Sinatra to Frank Zappa. For several years, the Strip was the international center of a movement that John Densmore, the Doors drummer, refers to as magical. "So we're the house band at the Whiskey a Go Go, and I'm sitting upstairs looking out the window," Densmore said. "It's like a Tuesday night, and it's complete gridlock and thousands of hippies on the street and I said, 'Wow, we're taking over.'" But the nightly throngs rattled the nerves of homeowners and some merchants. Local officials ordered a curfew and a crackdown. Pandora's Box, a popular club at Sunset and Crescent Heights Boulevard, had been scheduled for demolition, and rebels rallied Nov. 12, 1966, in an effort to save it. The Times reported that Sonny and Cher, Jack Nicholson and Peter Fonda were among the demonstrators, and that Fonda was carted away in handcuffs."
"Film Censorship: Noteworthy Moments in History". aclu.org. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved August 11, 2014. "Rather than cut nude scenes from Blow-Up, Michelangelo Antonioni chooses to release it without an MPAA seal."
Mikulecky, Don (June 8, 2015). "Does anyone remember the Diggers?". Daily Kos. Retrieved November 30, 2016. "On December 17, 1966, the Diggers held a happening called "The Death of Money" in which they dressed in animal masks and carried a large coffin full of fake money down Haight Street, singing "Get out my life, why don't you babe?" to the tune of Chopin's "Death March.""
"Gene Anthony Gallery of Digger Photographs". The Digger Archives. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
"Comprehensive information about Richard Brautigan, his life, and writings – 1960s Chronology". BRAUTIGAN.net. John F. Barber, Curator and Archivist. Archived from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
"IT – International Times Archive". www.internationaltimes.it.
Miles, Barry (2002). In the Sixties. Jonathon Cape. ISBN 9780224062404. Retrieved December 23, 2016.
David Marc (January 1, 2011). Demographic Vistas: Television in American Culture. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8122-0271-7.
Sanking, Aaron (September 11, 2012). "Human Be-In Planned In Golden Gate Park This Weekend (PHOTOS)". HuffPost. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
Mark Brend (December 6, 2012). The Sound of Tomorrow: How Electronic Music Was Smuggled into the Mainstream. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-62356-529-9.
Haripada Adhikary (2012). Unifying Force of Hinduism: The Harekrsna Movement. AuthorHouse. p. 213. ISBN 978-1-4685-0393-7.
File:1967 Mantra-Rock Dance Avalon poster.jpg
"Paul Kantner: Leader of Jefferson Airplane whose psychedelic harmonies became the soundtrack to the counter-culture". The Telegraph. January 29, 2016. Retrieved February 2, 2016.
Chomsky, Noam (February 23, 1967). "A Special Supplement: The Responsibility of Intellectuals". The New York Review of Books. NYREV, Inc. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
Bodroghkozy, Aniko. "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour". museum.tv. The Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on July 2, 2018. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
Robinson, Will. "Watch the never-before-seen Beatles video for 'A Day in the Life'". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jeff Land (1999). Active Radio: Pacifica's Brash Experiment. University of Minnesota Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-4529-0372-9.
Scott, A.O. (September 18, 2012). "Rekindling the Spirit of the '60s, Even for Those Who Can't Remember". The New York Times. Retrieved July 26, 2014. "On the night of Feb. 11, 1967, hundreds – maybe thousands – of people congregated in the international terminal of Kennedy Airport, not to embark on flights to far-flung places but rather, well, it isn't entirely clear or relevant. The gathering was an impromptu party, a nonpolitical demonstration, a happening named, in the spirit of the times, a fly-in. Now we might be inclined to see it as a prehistoric flash mob, an example of the power of communication technology to create instantaneous, ephemeral but nonetheless meaningful communities."
Sheila Whiteley (September 2, 2003). The Space Between the Notes: Rock and the Counter-Culture. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-134-91662-7.
Green, Jonathon (1988). Days In The Life: Voices from the English Underground 1961–1971. Heinemann. ISBN 978-1-448-10444-4. "I remember Christopher Hills, who ran the Centre House, calling down one day, 'Can you please not smoke marijuana – we can smell it on the third floor.' After that we put in a guest book which said, 'I am not in possession of any kind of drugs,' and everyone signed it including Yoko Ono"
Ratliff, Ben (January 11, 2012). "Present at the Counterculture's Creation". The New York Times. Retrieved May 6, 2014.
Horwitz, Jane (September 5, 2006). "Backstage: She Hopes 'MacBird' Flies in a New Era". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
McNeill, Don (March 30, 1967). "The 1967 Central Park Be-In: A 'Medieval Pageant'". villagevoice.com. Village Voice. Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
"Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle (sourced)". stanford.edu. Martin Luther King, Jr. Research & Education Center. April 25, 2017. Retrieved December 4, 2019.
"Photos: Nashville race riots 1967". tennessean.com (archive.tennessean.com). February 29, 2008. Archived from the original on May 17, 2014. Retrieved May 17, 2014.
"The MOBE: "What are we waiting for?"". pbs.org. PBS / Independent Television Service (ITVS). Archived from the original on October 12, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2014. "After the elections, the committee became the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, which organized major anti-war demonstrations that took place in April 1967. In New York City, 400,000 protesters marched from Central Park to the United Nations, with speakers including Martin Luther King Jr., and Stokely Carmichael. 75,000 gathered for a similar rally in San Francisco."
Hlavaty, Craig (April 28, 2014). "47 years ago today, Muhammad Ali refused the draft in Houston". chron.com. Houston Chronicle. Retrieved October 5, 2014. "(Report with photos) Forty-seven years ago today, Muhammad Ali made headlines for refusing to be drafted into the U.S. Army on the grounds of being a conscientious objector, and it all happened here in Houston. It would set off a chain of events that wouldn't cease until a 1971 Supreme Court decision reversed his conviction."
"Pink Floyd – John Lennon & The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream". YouTube. May 4, 2011. Retrieved August 8, 2018. "Footage from the 14 Hour Technicolor dream"
Walt Crowley (1995). Rites of Passage: A Memoir of the Sixties in Seattle. University of Washington Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-295-97492-7.
Winkler, Adam (July 24, 2011). "The Secret History of Guns". The Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group. Retrieved October 10, 2014. "It was May 2, 1967, and the Black Panthers' invasion of the California statehouse launched the modern gun-rights movement."
"Yarrowstalks Archives". library.temple.edu. Temple University. 1977. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved October 14, 2014. "Twelve issues of Yarrowstalks were published in Philadelphia from 1967 until 1975. Most of the activity was concentrated at the beginning of the period, in the heyday of underground press activity. The "summer of love" in 1967 saw the birth of about 100 underground publications nationwide, and Yarrowstalks was one of the first. It was the most physically appealing of the first wave in its creative use of color and artwork. In contrast to the other Philadelphia papers, Yarrowstalks leaned away from the politics. Like New York's East Village Other and the San Francisco Oracle, Yarrowstalks was among the first underground paper to explore the graphic possibilities of cold-type offset printing. Color was splashed over pages with sketches and text. The Oracle, particularly, was responsible for making newspaper graphics an art form, and it published some of the most beautiful and trend-setting psychedelic art of the 1960s. Yarrowstalks was Philadelphia's Oracle, and it was the first of the undergrounds to publish the cartoons of Robert Crumb, an ex-Hallmark illustrator who has become the leading artist of underground "commix." In his character, Mr. Natural, he captured the feeling of the movement. Mr. Natural graced Yarrowstalks that summer and subsequently appeared in most of the alternative publications in the country."
Peter Hitchens (January 3, 2013). The War We Never Fought: The British Establishment's Surrender to Drugs. A&C Black. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4411-7331-7.
Bryson, William (May 22, 1967). "Texas Southern University: Born in Sin, A College Finally Makes Houston Listen". thecrimson.com. Retrieved October 15, 2014. "Since this article was written, the situation at Texas Southern has become even worse. A policeman was killed in rioting last week, and 488 people were arrested."
Crane, Ralph (April 1967). "1967: Pictures from a Pivotal Year". Time. Archived from the original on March 26, 2012. Retrieved January 14, 2015.
"VVAW / FAQ / Who founded Vietnam Veterans Against the War?". vvaw.org. Vietnam Veterans Against the War. Retrieved October 15, 2014. "On June 1, 1967, six Vietnam veterans gathered in Barry's apartment to form VVAW. Another vet associated with the early days of VVAW is Carl Rogers. Rogers held a press conference upon his return from his Vietnam service as a chaplain's assistant announcing his opposition to the war. Barry recruited him and at some point he became "vice president" of VVAW. Other early influential members who are mentioned are David Braum, John Talbot, and Art Blank. Jan Barry also lists Steve Greene and Frank (Rocky) Rocks"
Walter C. Rucker; James N. Upton (2007). Encyclopedia of American Race Riots. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33302-6.
Light, Alan (July 12, 2007). "Summer of Love: London – Tightly knit, decadent and explosively creative, the scene was too good to last". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved February 8, 2016.
Selvin, Joel (1999). Summer of Love The Inside Story of LSD, Rock & Roll, Free Love, and High Times in the Wild West. Cooper Square Press. ISBN 9780815410195.
Selvin, Joel; Young, Malcolm C. (June 11, 2017). "The Summer of Love". The Forum at Grace Cathedral. Grace Cathedral, San Francisco – via vimeo.
Selvin, Joel; Young, Malcolm C. (June 11, 2017). "The Summer of Love". The Forum at Grace Cathedral. Grace Cathedral, San Francisco – via YouTube. "With the 50th anniversary of the Summer of Love sparking celebrations and events throughout San Francisco, we invite the New York Times best-selling author of Summer of Love: The Inside Story of LSD, Rock & Roll, Free Love and High Times in the Wild West and former San Francisco Chronicle senior pop music critic Joel Selvin to offer his insights into the lasting impact of the 1967 cultural revolution that was born in the Haight-Ashbury."
Gene Anthony (1980). The Summer of Love: Haight-Ashbury at Its Highest (PDF). John Libbey Eurotext. ISBN 0867194219. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 6, 2007.
"500 Greatest Albums of All Time: #1- The Beatles, 'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. May 31, 2012. Retrieved October 18, 2014. "At the same time, Sgt. Pepper formally ushered in an unforgettable season of hope, upheaval and achievement: the late 1960s and, in particular, 1967's Summer of Love. In its iridescent instrumentation, lyric fantasias and eye-popping packaging, Sgt. Pepper defined the opulent revolutionary optimism of psychedelia and instantly spread the gospel of love, acid, Eastern spirituality and electric guitars around the globe. No other pop record of that era, or since, has had such an immediate, titanic impact. This music documents the world's biggest rock band at the very height of its influence and ambition."
The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature. Oxford University Press. 2006. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-19-516921-8.
Paul Hegarty; Martin Halliwell (June 23, 2011). Beyond and Before: Progressive Rock since the 1960s. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-4411-1480-8.
Newman, Jason (June 14, 2014). "The Untold and Deeply Stoned Story of the First U.S. Rock Festival: How the Doors, Byrds and nearly 30 other bands, a pack of Hells Angels and a lot of drugs made history at Fantasy Fair & Magic Mountain". Rolling Stone. Retrieved March 20, 2018. "On June 10th and 11th, 1967 – one week before the Monterey Pop Festival and two years before Woodstock – tens of thousands of Bay Area music fans converged on the Sydney B. Cushing Memorial Amphitheatre on Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, California, for the first U.S. rock festival. Conceived as a promotion for the KFRC 610 AM radio station, the Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival featured more than 30 acts, including the Doors, Jefferson Airplane, the Byrds and Captain Beefheart & the Magic Band, as well as a group of Hells Angels and an "acid doctor" to mitigate bad trips. Arguably, the festival was the true start of the Summer of Love, and this is its previously untold story."
Coleman, Arica (June 10, 2016). "What You Didn't Know About Loving v. Virginia". Time. Retrieved August 10, 2016. "The landmark civil rights Supreme Court case – which made it illegal to ban interracial marriage – was about more than black and white"
"Paul McCartney admits taking LSD". 94.7 WCSX-Greater Media. Archived from the original on October 9, 2016. Retrieved October 6, 2016. "Video of McCartney Interview"
Thompson, Thomas (June 16, 1967). "Life – New Far-Out Beatles".
Barney Hoskyns (December 9, 2010). Hotel California: The True-Life Adventures of Crosby, Stills, Nash, Young, Mitchell, Taylor, Browne, Ronstadt, Geffen, the Eagles, and Their Many Friends. John Wiley & Sons. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-118-04050-8.
"The Monterey Pop Festival reaches its climax". history.com. A&E Television Network. Retrieved May 29, 2018. "Some 200,000 people attended the Monterey Pop Festival over its three-day schedule, many of whom had descended upon the west coast inspired by the same spirit expressed in the Scott McKenzie song "San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Flowers In Your Hair)," written by festival organizer John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas expressly as a promotional tune for the festival. The Summer of Love that followed Monterey may have failed to usher in a lasting era of peace and love, but the festival introduced much of the music that has come to define that particular place and time."
Roger Beebe; Jason Middleton (September 5, 2007). Medium Cool: Music Videos from Soundies to Cellphones. Duke University Press. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-8223-9020-6.
George Martin (October 15, 1994). All You Need Is Ears: The Inside Personal Story of the Genius who Created The Beatles. St. Martin's Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-312-11482-4.
"The Hippies: The Philosophy of a Subculture". Time Magazine. July 7, 1967. Retrieved November 16, 2015. "Article Summary: One sociologist calls them "the Freudian proletariat." Another observer sees them as "expatriates living on our shores but beyond our society." Historian Arnold Toynbee describes them as "a red warning light for the American way of life." For California's Bishop James Pike, they evoke the early Christians: "There is something about the temper and quality of these people, a gentleness, a quietness, an interest – something good." To their deeply worried parents throughout the country, they seem more like dangerously deluded dropouts, candidates for a very sound spanking and a cram course in civics – if only they would return..."
Preston, John (March 7, 2010). "London Calling by Barry Miles: review – The louche, the drunk, the ridiculously avant garde... London Calling by Barry Miles offers an entertaining tour of the capital's counterculture". The Telegraph. Retrieved June 17, 2016. "That said, it's worth ploughing through almost any amount of detail to get to the story of Emmett Grogan, who in 1967 was one of the speakers who addressed the deeply unalluringly titled Dialectics of Liberation Congress at the Roundhouse in Chalk Farm. Grogan delivered a 10-minute speech all about 'effecting a real inner transformation' that was rapturously received by the assembled hippies. After the applause had died down, Grogan thanked the audience for their generosity, but pointed out that he was not, in fact, the first person to make this speech: it had originally been delivered by Adolf Hitler at the Reichstag in 1937. Whereupon the rapturous audience immediately turned into a baying lynch-mob."
Cullen, Tom A. (September 14, 1967). "Americans in London – England is Hippie Heaven". news.google.com/newspapers. Retrieved October 18, 2014.
"Photos: Pot Rally at Hyde Park, London (July 16th, 1967)". herbmuseum.ca. The Herb Museum. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved October 18, 2014. ""July 1967: A 'Legalise Pot' rally is held in London's Hyde Park; an advertisement in The Times, sponsored by SOMA, a drug research organisation, states: 'The law against marijuana is immoral in principle and unworkable in practice.' Signatories include the Beatles, RD Laing and Graham Greene." – from 100 Years of Altered States, The Guardian Newspaper (July 21, 2002)"
"Photos and Detroit News page image captures". detroitnews.mycapture.com. The Detroit News. July 1967. Archived from the original on March 24, 2016. Retrieved May 27, 2014.
"Beatles' manager Epstein dies". BBC. August 27, 1967. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
File:The_Daily_Mirror,_Brian_Epstein_death.jpg
Greil Marcus (April 9, 2013). The Doors: A Lifetime of Listening to Five Mean Years. PublicAffairs. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-61039-236-5.[permanent dead link]
Tony Currie (2001). The Radio Times Story. Kelly. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-903053-09-6.
Deborah Cartmell (August 3, 2012). A Companion to Literature, Film and Adaptation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 448. ISBN 978-1-118-31204-9.
Hartlaub, Peter (July 25, 2013). "Grateful Dead and the 710 Ashbury St. drug bust of 1967". sfgate.com. Hearst. Retrieved February 27, 2016. "SF Chronicle excerpts and photos.""
"Love on Haight: The Grateful Dead and San Francisco in 1967, University of California Santa Cruz". "Death of Hippie was a mock funeral staged on October 6, 1967 meant to signal the end of the Summer of Love. Organized by the Diggers to convince the media to stop covering the Haight, attendees burned underground newspapers and hippie clothing. Leaders carried a coffin down Haight Street and the crowd stopped for a "kneel-in" at the corner of Haight and Ashbury."
Bourne, Richard (October 10, 1967). "Che Guevara, Marxist architect of revolution". guardian.com. Retrieved October 18, 2014. "Rumours of disagreements with Castro grew. After months of mystery Castro announced that Guevara, who was known to have a garibaldian yearning to liberate the entire Latin American land mass, had resigned Cuban citizenship and left for "a new field of battle in the struggle against imperialism". [web story is reprint of original article]"
W.J. Rorabaugh Professor of History University of Washington (May 4, 1989). Berkeley at War : The 1960s: The 1960s. Oxford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-19-802252-7.
Richards, Harvey; Richards, Paul (February 18, 2013). "Stop the Draft, December, 1967 – Draft Cards Burning, Sit ins, Stop the Draft Week". Estuary Press. Harvey Richards Media Archive / Paul Richards. Retrieved October 18, 2014. "Photos & Text: top the Draft Week in December, 1967 at the Oakland Army Induction Center on Clay Street in downtown Oakland, California had many of the same actions that happened in October, 1967, just two months earlier. There was civil disobedience. Protesters blocked the doorway of the Center and were arrested. This time, protesters also sat down in front of the buses full of draftees. Draft eligible protesters publicly burned their draft cards in an open show of defiance against the draft and the laws that made it illegal to burn your draft card. Noticeably different in these photos is moderation of the police response. The streets were not cleared of protesters. Police did not stand with billy clubs at the ready. In the end, the draftees went into the center and the war machine continued."
"1967: Joan Baez arrested in Vietnam protest". BBC News. BBC. October 16, 1967. Retrieved October 18, 2014. "Rallies across America have taken place in 30 US cities, from Boston to Atlanta, to protest against the continuing war in Vietnam. In Oakland, California, at least 40 anti-war protesters, including the folk singer Joan Baez, were arrested for taking part in a sit-in at a military induction centre. As many as 250 demonstrators had gathered to try and prevent conscripts from entering the building when the arrests were made. The 'Stop the Draft Week' protests are forming part of a nationwide initiative organised by a group calling itself 'the Resistance'. Accompanied by singing from Baez and others, the sitting protesters forced draftees to climb over them in order to get inside the building. As they entered they were handed leaflets asking them to change their minds, refuse induction and join the protests. Human barricade Police formed a human barricade to enable inductees to pass and then made their arrests. In New York, around 500 demonstrators marched to protest against the draft. Young men placed draft cards into boxes marked 'Resisters'. 181 draft cards and several hundred protest cards were presented to a US Marshal but he refused to accept them. The group then marched to a post office and posted them directly to the Attorney General in Washington. The anti-war movement took on an added gravity yesterday when Florence Beaumont, mother of two, burned herself to death. After soaking herself in petrol she set herself alight in front of the Federal Building, Los Angeles. Counter-demonstrations have been planned by the National Committee for Responsible Patriotism, based in New York. Parades have been scheduled for the weekend in support of "our boys in Vietnam"."
John Rockwell (June 3, 2014). The New York Times the Times of the Sixties: The Culture, Politics, and Personalities That Shaped the Decade. Hachette Books. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-57912-964-4.
"N.Y. Police, Students Battle". Chicago Tribune. UPI (1967-10-19) via Chicago Tribune (1967-10-20). October 20, 1967. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
Sharin N. Elkholy (March 22, 2012). The Philosophy of the Beats. University Press of Kentucky. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-8131-4058-2.
Leen, Jeff (September 27, 1999). "The Vietnam Protests: When Worlds Collided". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 11, 2014. "The Pentagon march was the culmination of five days of nationwide anti-draft protests organized by the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam – "the Mobe." But a singular spark was provided by the Youth International Party (Yippies), a fringe group whose leaders, Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, had announced that they planned an "exorcism" of the Pentagon. They would encircle the building, chant incantations, "levitate" the structure and drive out the evil war spirits."
Ron Chepesiuk (January 1, 1995). Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era. McFarland. p. 303. ISBN 978-0-7864-3732-0.
"Huey P. Newton Biography: Civil Rights Activist (1942–1989)". biography.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved August 11, 2014. "Newton himself was arrested in 1967 for allegedly killing an Oakland police officer during a traffic stop. He was later convicted of voluntary manslaughter and sentenced to two to 15 years in prison. But public pressure – "Free Huey" became a popular slogan of the day – helped Newton's cause. The case was eventually dismissed after two retrials ended with hung juries."
Huey P. Newton (September 29, 2009). Revolutionary Suicide (Penguin Classics Deluxe ed.). Penguin Group US. ISBN 978-1-101-14047-5.
Fagan, Alexandra. "Rolling Stone's First Issue". rockhall.com. Retrieved January 14, 2016.
Barker, Andrew (October 24, 2014). "Cream Bassist Jack Bruce Dies at 71". Variety. Retrieved January 14, 2016.
James E. Perone (October 17, 2012). The Album: A Guide to Pop Music's Most Provocative, Influential, and Important Creations. ABC-CLIO. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-313-37907-9.
"Students Demonstrate Against Dow Chemical Company". history.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved October 5, 2016.
Jim DeRogatis (January 1, 2003). Turn on Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-634-05548-5.
Wenner, Jann (January 20, 1968). "Otis Redding: The Crown Prince of Soul Is Dead – The singer dies in a plane crash at 26 years old". Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 9, 2016. "Otis Redding, 26 years old, a former well-driller from Macon, Georgia, died in a plane crash in an icy Wisconsin lake on December 10. With him were the five teen-age members of the Bar-Kays, a group which made the popular instrumental, "Soul Finger," and who backed Otis on his recent tours and appearances. Otis was headed from Cleveland, Ohio, to a Sunday evening concert in Madison, Wisconsin. It was his first tour in the private plane he had just purchased. His plane hit the surface of the fog-shrouded Madison lake with tremendous force, widely scattering the debris. He was only four miles from the Madison Municipal Airport. On Tuesday, teams of divers were still dredging the bottom of the lake in a search for the bodies."
Brian Greenberg; Linda S. Watts; Richard A. Greenwald (October 23, 2008). Social History of the United States [10 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-59884-128-2.
James A. Inciardi (1990). Handbook of Drug Control in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-313-26190-9.
"PCP Fast Facts". www.justice.gov. National Drug Intelligence Center, a component of the U.S. Department of Justice. Archived from the original on August 14, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2018. "PCP is an addictive drug; its use often results in psychological dependence, craving, and compulsive behavior. PCP produces unpleasant psychological effects, and users often become violent or suicidal."
Gross, Terry (October 29, 1987). "Tom Wolfe: Chronicling Counterculture's 'Acid Test'". NPR. National Public Radio (US). Retrieved July 9, 2014. "Fresh Air: Text & Audio of Interview w/Wolfe"
"Blue Cheer Biography". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone Magazine. 2001. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013. Retrieved July 9, 2014. "Blue Cheer appeared in spring 1968 with a thunderously loud remake of Eddie Cochran's "Summertime Blues" that many regard as the first true heavy-metal record. One of the first hard-rock power trios, the group was named for an especially high-quality strain of LSD. Its manager, Gut, was an ex-Hell's Angel. (This biography originally appeared in The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001))"
"The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time". Rolling Stone. June 21, 2017. Retrieved October 8, 2017. "With a crash of thunder, the ringing of ominous church bells and one of the loudest guitar sounds in history, a heavy new music genre was born in earnest on a Friday the 13th early in 1970. Its roots stretch back to the late Sixties, when artists like Blue Cheer, Iron Butterfly and Led Zeppelin cranked their amps to play bluesy, shit-kicking rockers, but it wasn't until that fateful day, when Black Sabbath issued the first, front-to-back, wholly heavy-metal album – their gloomy self-titled debut – that a band had mastered the sound of the genre, one that still resonates nearly 50 years later: heavy metal."
"'Laugh-In' Comic Alan Sues Dies At 85". sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com. CBS/AP. December 4, 2011. Retrieved June 17, 2014.
Cheng, Jim (May 26, 2008). "'Laugh-in' comic Dick Martin dies at 86". USA Today. Retrieved June 17, 2014.
Oberdorfer, Don (November 2004). "TET: Who Won?; A North Vietnamese battlefield defeat that led to victory, the Tet Offensive still triggers debate nearly four decades later". smithsonianmag.com. Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
James Arnold (September 20, 2012). Tet Offensive 1968: Turning point in Vietnam. Osprey Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-78200-428-8.[permanent dead link]
Billboard. March 30, 1968. p. 35. ISSN 0006-2510.
Staton, Scott (December 12, 2012). "Neal Cassady: American Muse, Holy Fool". The New Yorker Magazine. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
Bass, Jack (2003). "Documenting the Orangeburg Massacre". www.nieman.harvard.edu. Nieman Foundation for Journalism at Harvard / Harvard University. Retrieved July 9, 2014. "Campus killings of black students received little news coverage in 1968, but a book about them keeps their memory alive."
Goldberg, Philip (2010). American Veda: From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation – How Indian Spirituality Changed the West. New York, NY: Harmony Books. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-385-52134-5.
Paytress, Mark (2003). "A Passage to India". Mojo Special Limited Edition: 1000 Days of Revolution (The Beatles' Final Years – Jan 1, 1968 to Sept 27, 1970). London: Emap. pp. 15–17.
Moyers, Bill (March 28, 2008). "The Kerner Commission – 40 Years Later". pbs.org. Bill Moyers Journal / Public Affairs Television. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "... the Kerner Report, with its stark conclusion that "Our nation is moving towards two societies – one white, one black – separate and unequal" – was a best-seller. It was also the source of great controversy and remains so today."
Thernstrom, Stephan; Siegel, Fred; Woodson, Robert (June 24, 1998). "The Kerner Commission Report". heritage.org. Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on April 26, 2010. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "This lecture was held at The Heritage Foundation on March 13, 1998."
"3 Honored for Saving Lives at My Lai". The New York Times. March 7, 1998. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "Thirty years after one of the darkest moments in United States military history, three soldiers who happened upon the My Lai massacre and risked their lives to save Vietnamese civilians by aiming their weapons at fellow Americans were proclaimed heroes today by the Army."
William Thomas Allison (July 21, 2012). My Lai: An American Atrocity in the Vietnam War. JHU Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4214-0706-7.
"Report of the Department of the Army Review of the Preliminary Investigations into the My Lai Incident: Vol. 1, the Report of the Investigation" (PDF). loc.gov. United States Army. March 14, 1970. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
"1968: Anti-Vietnam demo turns violent". BBC. BBC (UK). 2008. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "The trouble followed a big rally in Trafalgar square, when an estimated 10,000 demonstrated against American action in Vietnam and British support for the United States."
Hoyland, John (March 14, 2008). "Power to the people: The year was 1968 and, worldwide, there was revolution in the air. But when John Hoyland attacked John Lennon's politics in a radical paper, he didn't expect the fiery Beatle to rise to the bait". Retrieved April 14, 2016.
Burley, Leo (March 9, 2008). "Jagger vs Lennon: London's riots of 1968 provided the backdrop to a rock'n'roll battle royale". The Independent. The Independent (UK). Archived from the original on May 7, 2022. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "Forty years ago, the world was on the brink of revolution. But while Mick was urging insurrection on the streets of London, John was preaching peace and love. In a series of incendiary, rediscovered interviews, Jagger and Lennon reveal themselves as never before or since: battling one another for the soul of rock'n'roll"
Kennedy, Robert Francis (March 18, 1968). "Robert F. Kennedy Speeches: Remarks at the University of Kansas, March 18, 1968". jfklibrary.org. John F. Kennedy Library & Museum. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "I don't want to be part of a government, I don't want to be part of the United States, I don't want to be part of the American people, and have them write of us as they wrote of Rome: "They made a desert and they called it peace.""
McNeill, Don; Ortega, Tony (March 28, 1968). "The Grand Central Riot: Yippies Meet the Man". villagevoice.com. The Village Voice. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved July 27, 2014. "Clip Job: Yip-In Turns Into Bloody Mess as Police Riot at Grand Central (headline from archived article published 2010-04-10)"
Peter Knight (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 752. ISBN 978-1-57607-812-9.
Boxer, Tim (March 7, 2005). "Photo: Yippies In Grand Central Station". gettyimages.com. Getty Images. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "Caption:Members of the Youth International Party, or Yippies, gathering Grand Central Station for a sit-down demonstration New York, New York, March 22, 1968. (Photo by Tim Boxer/Pictorial Parade/Getty Images)"
Johnson, Lyndon Baines (March 31, 1968). "Presidential Johnson's Address to the Nation, 3/31/68". lbjlibrary.net. The Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library (video via YouTube). Retrieved July 10, 2014. "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president."
Campbell, Howard (September 12, 2012). "Larry Marshall makes sweet Nanny Goat". Jamaica Observer. Archived from the original on August 7, 2018. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "The song he recorded at Dodd's Studio One was Nanny Goat which some musicologists and reggae historians say is the first reggae song. Others argue that Toots and the Maytals' Do The Reggay, also done in 1968, and Games People Play by Bob Andy the following year, marked the transition from rocksteady to reggae. But for most, Nanny Goat was the game-changer."
Kevin O'Brien Chang; Wayne Chen (1998). Reggae Routes: The Story of Jamaican Music. Temple University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-56639-629-5.
Don Voorhees (October 4, 2011). The Super Book of Useless Information: The Most Powerfully Unnecessary Things You Never Need to Know. Penguin. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-101-54513-3.
Cox Commission (1968). Crisis at Columbia (Cox Commission Report) (Paperback). Random House / First Vintage Press. p. 222. "Report of the Fact Finding Commission Appointed to Investigate the Disturbances at Columbia University in April and May 1968"
"Reservists Lose Plea, High Court OK's Vietnam Duty". AP via Milwaukee Journal. October 28, 1968. Retrieved July 10, 2014.[permanent dead link]
"Complete Transcript of the Martin Luther King, Jr. Assassination Conspiracy Trial" (PDF). thekingcenter.org. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 26, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2014.
Flock, Elizabeth (April 12, 2012). "Martin Luther King assassination in 1968 a 'cruel and wanton act'". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 9, 2014. "After King's death, riots spread through Memphis. Some 4,000 National Guard troops were ordered into the city, and a curfew was imposed on the city...The riots soon spread across the nation – to Chicago, Baltimore, Kansas City and Washington, D.C."
"Youth: The Politics of YIP". Time Magazine. No. April 5, 1968. "April 5, 1968. Vol. 91 No. 41"
"Interview: Eldridge Cleaver". PBS / Frontline (US). Retrieved July 10, 2014. "Bobby Hutton didn't get wounded during the shootout, but they murdered him after we were in custody."
Pear, Robert (July 12, 1981). "Plan to Merge FBI and Drug Agency Pressed ( NY Times)". The New York Times. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "The Bureau of Narcotics, a Treasury Department agency established in 1930, was combined in 1968 with the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control, a unit of the Food and Drug Administration, to form the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, within the Justice Department. Then, with the transfer of more than 500 narcotics investigators from the Treasury's old Bureau of Customs, the Drug Enforcement Administration was created in 1973."
Law, Lisa. "Lisa Law Photo Index". americanhsitory.si.edu. Retrieved September 29, 2017.
Emmis Communications (November 1991). "Texas Monthly". Domain: The Lifestyle Magazine of Texas Monthly. p. 118. ISSN 0148-7736.
Alverson, Brigid (June 27, 2014). "Felix Dennis, defendant in Rupert Bear obscenity case, dies". comicbookresources.com. Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on September 26, 2015. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
Poggioli, Sylvia (May 13, 2008). "Marking the French Social Revolution of '68". NPR. Morning Edition /National Public Radio (US). Retrieved July 10, 2014. "Audio, Text & Photos"
"People & Events: Paris Peace Talks". pbs.org. PBS/WGBH/American Experience (US). Retrieved July 10, 2014.
Robert Dallek (March 19, 1998). Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973. Oxford University Press. p. 738. ISBN 978-0-19-977190-5.
Christine Bragg (2005). Vietnam, Korea and US Foreign Policy 1945-75. Heinemann. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-435-32708-8.
""Catonsville 9" All Get Prison". AP via Milwaikee Journal. November 8, 1968. Retrieved July 10, 2014.[permanent dead link]
"Actor, Director Tim Robbins Takes Up Historic Vietnam War Protest in Production of "The Trial of the Catonsville Nine"". Democracy Now. Juan Gonzalez. August 27, 2009. Retrieved December 16, 2016. "Tim Robbins: Nine Catholic activists – Father Daniel Berrigan, his brother Philip Berrigan and seven others – broke into the draft board, Catonsville, Maryland, and burned about 350 draft records, dragged them outside and burned them with homemade napalm in an act of protest against the Vietnam War... They waited for the police to arrive, and they waited for the trial to happen... it became a very large issue and went nationwide, and these moral questions that these Catholics were asking did become part of the national conversation."
Lewis, Daniel (April 30, 2016). "Daniel J. Berrigan, Defiant Priest Who Preached Pacifism, Dies at 94". The New York Times. Retrieved December 16, 2016. "A defining point was the burning of Selective Service draft records in Catonsville, Md., and the subsequent trial of the so-called Catonsville Nine, a sequence of events that inspired an escalation of protests across the country; there were marches, sit-ins, the public burning of draft cards and other acts of civil disobedience."
"Rioting in Louisville, KY (1968)". nkaa.uky.edu. University of Kentucky. 2003–2014. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "The skirmish escalated, growing into a full-fledged riot in the West End, lasting for almost a week. Six units of the national guard, over 2,000 guardsmen, were ordered to Louisville. Looting and shooting occurred, buildings were burned, two teens were killed, and 472 people were arrested"
Robert Niemi (January 1, 2006). History in the Media: Film and Television. ABC-CLIO. p. 305. ISBN 978-1-57607-952-2.
Smith, Jack (June 3, 1968). "Photo: Andy Warhol being lifted into an ambulance after he was shot, June 3, 1968". warhol.org. The Andy Warhol Museum, Pittsburgh; Founding Collection, Contribution The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, Inc. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
Kaplan, Michael (June 2, 2018). "I could have saved Andy Warhol from being shot". New York Post. The New York Post. Retrieved June 3, 2018.
Granberry, Michael (June 5, 2014). "Forty-six years ago today, an assassin shot Sen. Robert F. Kennedy, stamping 1968 as the year that forever changed America". dallasnews.com. The Dallas Morning News Inc. Archived from the original on June 9, 2014. Retrieved June 12, 2014.
Christopher P. Lehman (October 26, 2006). American Animated Cartoons of the Vietnam Era: A Study of Social Commentary in Films and Television Programs, 1961–1973. McFarland. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-7864-5142-5.
"The Beatles' 1968 Pop Art masterpiece Yellow Submarine has been digitally restored and re-released to huge acclaim". thebeatles.com. Apple Corps. June 22, 2012. Archived from the original on February 1, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2014.
Günter Bischof; Stefan Karner; Peter Ruggenthaler (2010). The Prague Spring and the Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7391-4304-9.
"The 1968 Democratic National Convention: At the height of a stormy year, Chicago streets become nightly battle zones". Chicago Tribune. August 26, 1968. Retrieved June 5, 2014.
Kenneth Womack; Todd F. Davis (February 1, 2012). Reading the Beatles: Cultural Studies, Literary Criticism, and the Fab Four. SUNY Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-7914-8196-7.
Elwood Watson; Darcy Martin (August 21, 2004). "There She Is, Miss America": The Politics of Sex, Beauty, and Race in America's Most Famous Pageant. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-4039-6301-7.
W. Joseph Campbell (2010). Getting it Wrong: Ten of the Greatest Misreported Stories in American Journalism. University of California Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-520-25566-1.
Ali, Lorraine (April 24, 2018). "'The Mod Squad,' 'Adam-12' and how TV brought the counterculture into 1968's cop shows". Los Angeles Times via Virginian-Pilot. Archived from the original on April 26, 2018. Retrieved April 25, 2018. ""The Mod Squad" featured a multiracial trio of nonconformist crime fighters: Long-haired rebel Pete. Black activist Linc. Flower girl Julie. On other long-running detective shows of the era, such as "Dragnet," they would have been cast as the disrespectful young people arrested during aimless protests or a raid on a free-love cult."
"Whole Earth History: 1968 to 1988". wholeearth.com. New Whole Earth LLC. Archived from the original on July 19, 2018. Retrieved July 12, 2014. "1968: Stewart Brand initiates The Whole Earth Catalog as "a Low Maintenance, High Yield, Self Sustaining, Critical Information Service." Self-published, with no advertising, it sold 1000 copies at $5 each."
Stern, Jane; Stern, Michael (December 9, 2007). "Access to Tools (Book Review: Counterculture Green)". The New York Times. Retrieved March 8, 2015. "Kirk's book uses the genesis and evolution of Whole Earth as an opportunity to survey the sea change in environmental and design attitudes that emerged in the 1960s counterculture but, he notes emphatically, eventually outgrew it."
Richman, Joe; Diaz-Cortes, Anayansi (December 1, 2008). "Mexico's 1968 Massacre: What Really Happened? (Text, Audio, & Photo Gallery)". NPR. Radio Diaries / All Things Considered / US National Public Radio. Retrieved March 8, 2015. "Government sources originally reported that four people had been killed and 20 wounded, while eyewitnesses described the bodies of hundreds of young people being trucked away. Thousands of students were beaten and jailed, and many disappeared. Forty years later, the final death toll remains a mystery, but documents recently released by the U.S. and Mexican governments give a better picture of what may have triggered the massacre."
Cosgrove, Ben; Dominis, John (October 14, 2013). "The Black Power Salute that Rocked the 1968 Olympics". Time. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2015. "When Olympic sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos stood atop the medal podium at the 1968 Summer Games in Mexico City, bowed their heads and raised black-gloved fists during the playing of the national anthem, millions of their fellow Americans were outraged. But countless millions more around the globe thrilled to the sight of two men standing before the world, unafraid, expressing disillusionment with a nation that so often fell, and still falls, so short of its promise."
Maraniss, David (2015). Once in a Great City: A Detroit Story (First ed.). Simon & Schuster. pp. 247–272. ISBN 978-1-4767-4838-2.
"Oct 18, 1968: John Lennon and Yoko Ono arrested for drug possession". history.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
Robert Niemi (2006). History in the Media: Film and Television. ABC-CLIO. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-57607-952-2.
Randolph Lewis (November 1, 2000). Emile de Antonio: Radical Filmmaker in Cold War America. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-299-16913-8.
"Cold War Chronicles: The Films of Emile de Antonio". harvard.edu. Harvard Film Archive. Archived from the original on May 5, 2014. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
"On This Day: 27 October". BBC News. BBC. 2008. Retrieved March 8, 2015. "The turnout for the march was around 25,000, half the number predicted by police and organisers. But, far from being disappointed at the low turnout Mr Ali said; "This is not the end. This is the beginning of the campaign.""
"Oct 31, 1968: President Johnson announces bombing halt". A&E Television Networks. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
"Material at the LBJ Library Pertaining to the October 31, 1968 Bombing Halt" (PDF). lbjlibrary.net. Lyndon Baines Johnson Library & Museum. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "This list highlights several key files that contain material on the October 31, 1968, bombing halt."
"Nixon wins heated battle". November 6, 1968. Retrieved July 10, 2014. "25 years ago..."
"Political Roundup: Humphrey, Nixon, Wallace". news.google.com. AP via Washington Observer-Reporter. October 19, 1968. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
Lynskey, Dorian (April 28, 2011). "The Monkees' Head: 'Our fans couldn't even see it'". The Guardian. Retrieved February 2, 2016. "It's a fourth-wall-shattering, stream-of-consciousness black comedy that mocks war, America, Hollywood, television, the music business and the Monkees themselves. These days, it is fondly remembered as one of the weirdest and best rock movies ever made, and a harbinger of the so-called New Hollywood. Quentin Tarantino and Edgar Wright are both fans. DJ Shadow and Saint Etienne have sampled its dialogue. According to director Bob Rafelson, the Beatles and the Rolling Stones both requested private screenings, while Thomas Pynchon attended a screening disguised as a plumber. But to the fans who had made the Monkees household names, it might as well never have existed. "The movie dropped like a ball of dark star," says bassist Peter Tork. "The simile of a rock in the water is too mild for how badly that movie did.""
Yoram Allon; Del Cullen; Hannah Patterson (2002). Contemporary North American Film Directors: A Wallflower Critical Guide. Wallflower Press. p. 435. ISBN 978-1-903364-52-9.
Springer, Denize (September 22, 2008). "Campus commemorates 1968 student-led strike". sfsu.edu. SF State News (University Communications). Retrieved July 11, 2014. "The five-month event defined the University's core values of equity and social justice, laid the groundwork for establishment of the College of Ethnic Studies..."
Schevitz, Tanya (October 26, 2008). "S.F. State to mark 40th anniversary of strike". sfgate.com. San Francisco Chronicle/Hearst. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "Pioneer in ethnic studies: Early in 1969, the university agreed to many of the student demands, including the establishment of the nation's first and only college of ethnic studies. The strike ended March 20."
"Archival Videos". diva.sfsu.edu. San Francisco Bay Area Television Archive. Retrieved December 30, 2014.
Linda Martin; Kerry Segrave (1993). Anti-rock: The Opposition to Rock 'n' Roll. Perseus Books Group. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-0-306-80502-8.[permanent dead link]
John Lennon (October 1, 2013). Skywriting by Word of Mouth. HarperCollins. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-06-231986-9.
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"The Beatles (White Album): Releases". allmusic.com. AllMusic. Retrieved July 11, 2014. "Release Date: November 22, 1968"
"The Earthrise Photograph". Abc.net.au. December 24, 1968. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
"Remembering Ford & Sydeman Halls – The Student Occupation of Ford Hall, January 1969". lts.brandeis.edu. Brandeis University Archives & Special Collections. Retrieved December 31, 2014. "On January 8, 1969, approximately seventy African American students took control of Ford and Sydeman Halls. The students quickly presented the administration with a list of ten demands for better minority representation on campus. Although the administration did not come to an agreement on all ten demands, the students left Ford and Sydeman Halls on January 18th, eleven days after the occupation began. The administration did grant most of the students amnesty, and President Morris Abram stated that every legitimate demand would be met in good faith."
Schneider, Keith; Barboza, Tony (January 4, 2018). "California offshore drilling could be expanded for the first time since 1984 under federal leasing proposal". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 7, 2018. "A devastating, 100,000-barrel spill in Santa Barbara in 1969 killed thousands of seabirds and led to the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act, the foundation of U.S. environmental law, and the creation of the federal Environmental Protection Agency. The 260,000-barrel Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska's Prince William Sound in 1989 exposed thousands of that state's residents to the beach-fouling consequences of spilled oil. The 4.9-million-barrel Deepwater Horizon disaster, the worst offshore oil spill in U.S. history, stirred new and broad opposition to offshore development."
Lindeman, Tracey (February 15, 2014). "A look back at Montreal's race-related 1969 Computer Riot". cbc.ca. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved December 31, 2014. "Forty-five years ago this week, violent protests and a 14-day sit-in over racism at Sir George Williams University exploded, causing $2 million in damage for the school."
Runtagh, Jordan (January 29, 2016). "Beatles' Famous Rooftop Concert: 15 Things You Didn't Know". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 16, 2016. "George's rosewood ax, mics wrapped in pantyhose and Orson Welles' alleged son – the wild truth about the Fab Four's final show"
"Spectators Guide to the New Troublemakers". The Village Voice. January 16, 1969. Retrieved November 27, 2015. "Advertisement for the February, 1969 edition of Esquire published in the Village Voice"
McCormick, Dennis; Archival Reports (1969). "Peaceful protests lead to turmoil on Madison's campus". Wisconsin State Journal. Retrieved April 14, 2016.
"ACLU History". ACLU.org. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
Burks, John (December 10, 2010). "Jim Morrison's Indecency Arrest: Rolling Stone's Original Coverage". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved March 2, 2016. "Jim Morrison, the Doors' cataclysmic, electroplastic lead singer, finally let it all hang out at a March 2nd concert in Miami, Florida, and in the outraged aftermath became the object of six arrest warrants, including one for a felony charge of "Lewd and lascivious behavior in public by exposing his private parts and by simulating masturbation and oral copulation." [Original article with discussion by author]."
Johnston, Maura (December 9, 2010). "Jim Morrison Pardoned By Florida Clemency Board: Doors lead singer's indecent exposure conviction stems from 1969 incident". rollingstone.com. Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 5, 2016. "On Thursday, Florida's Clemency Board pardoned the late Doors frontman Jim Morrison for two misdemeanor convictions stemming from a 1969 incident in which he allegedly exposed himself. The pardon was requested by outgoing Florida Gov. Charlie Crist and the state Clemency Board unanimously granted it. In March 1969, a bearded, drunken Morrison was performing at the Dinner Key Auditorium in Miami when, during the performance, he allegedly asked the audience, "Do you wanna see my cock?" After the audience of more than 10,000 fans responded, he pulled down his pants and briefly simulated masturbation."
Graeme Thomson (October 11, 2013). George Harrison: Behind The Locked Door. Music Sales Group. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-85712-858-4.
Fawcett, Anthony (1976). "THE PEACE POLITICIAN – THE BED-INS-AMSTERDAM AND MONTREAL". imaginepeace.com. Grove Press via Imagine Peace. Retrieved July 16, 2014. "From the (Anthony Fawcett) book One Day at a Time"
Marc Jason Gilbert (2001). The Vietnam War on Campus: Other Voices, More Distant Drums. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-275-96909-7.
"This Day in History. Vietnam War:Westmoreland requests more troops". history.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved August 13, 2014. "Gen. William Westmoreland, senior U.S. military commander in Vietnam, sends a new troop request to the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Westmoreland stated that he needed 542,588 troops for the war in Vietnam in 1967 – an increase of 111,588 men to the number already serving there. In the end, President Johnson acceded to Westmoreland's wishes and dispatched the additional troops to South Vietnam, but the increases were done in an incremental fashion. The highest number of U.S. troops in South Vietnam was 543,500, which was reached in 1969."
Gross, Terry (October 15, 2010). "'The Uncensored Story' Of The Smothers Brothers". npr.og. National Public Radio (US). Retrieved April 14, 2016. "Undeniably, CBS wanted Tom and Dick Smothers off the air because of the ideas they were espousing on their show, but eventually removed them by claiming that the brothers had violated the terms of their contract by not delivering a copy of that week's show in time. It was like the feds busting Al Capone: the crime for which he was convicted was a mere technicality, but it got Capone off the streets. In the case of CBS and the Smothers Brothers, they got them off the air. Fired, not canceled, as Tom Smothers invariably corrected people in an effort to set the record straight."
"TV Ratings 1968–69". classictvhits.com. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
Donovan, Lauren (May 9, 2008). "40th anniversary of infamous Zip to Zap party nears". Bismarck Tribune. Retrieved October 5, 2016. "Between 1,000 and 2,000 mostly college students converged on Zap, a coal mine hamlet in Mercer County. The press was there and worldwide headlines resulted when the Guard moved in and rousted the by-then sleepy kids out of town, causing thousands of other Zap-bound students to turn around."
Rosen, Rebecca (February 14, 2014). "Video: Ronald Reagan's Press Conference After 'Bloody Thursday': An angry governor shows no patience for his critics following a confrontation between Berkeley students and the National Guard". The Atlantic. Retrieved April 14, 2016. "May of 1969 was a terrifying and unsettling time for students at the University of California, Berkeley. Activist efforts to turn an unused plot of university land into a park, "People's Park," were met with, at first, mild bureaucratic resistance, but tensions soon escalated, and, ultimately, Governor Ronald Reagan decided to break up a rally by sending in California's National Guard."
Elizabeth L. Wollman (November 6, 2006). The Theater Will Rock: A History of the Rock Musical, from Hair to Hedwig. University of Michigan Press. p. 77. ISBN 0-472-11576-6.
Lennon, John; Lennon, Yoko Ono (May 1969). "Bed Peace". imaginepeace.com. Bag Productions / Yoko Ono Lennon. Retrieved January 14, 2015. "In 1969, John and I were so naïve to think that doing the bed-in would help change the world. Well, it might have. But at the time, we didn't know. It was good that we filmed it, though. The film is powerful now. What we said then could have been said now...-Yoko Ono Lennon, 2014. (Film hosted on YouTube.)"
Len Sperry (December 31, 2015). Mental Health and Mental Disorders: An Encyclopedia of Conditions, Treatments, and Well-Being. ABC-CLIO. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-4408-0383-3.
"Stars, Drugs and Death: Judy Garland". CBS News. CBS. March 11, 2010. Retrieved June 19, 2016. "Judy Garland was found dead in London on June 22, 1969, at the age of 47. The coroner stated that the cause of death was "an incautious self-overdosage" of barbiturates. Her death certificate stated that her death had been accidental."
Rimalower, Ben (June 14, 2016). "Rufus Wainwright On What Makes Judy Garland a Gay Icon". Playbill. Retrieved June 19, 2016.
Quijano, Elaine; Kennedy, Kim (June 28, 2015). "Remembering the Stonewall riot and the start of a movement". CBS News. Retrieved April 14, 2016. "Mafia-owned and ille