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Abraham Washington Attell (February 22, 1883 – February 7, 1970), often referred to by newspapers as "The Little Hebrew", was an American boxer who became known for his record-setting, six year consecutive reign as World Featherweight Champion from 1906 to 1912, and his nearly consecutive ten-year reign starting in 1902. Said to be a friend of the gangster Arnold Rothstein, Attell was charged with game fixing in the Black Sox Scandal in 1919, but the charges were dismissed before trial. He also was suspected of other infractions including fixing fights, and using drugs during a fight.[1]

Early life and career
Attell was born in San Francisco, California, the son of Jewish parents. Many sources give his year of birth as 1884, but in an article published in the October 1961 issue of Cavalier magazine, he stated that he had turned 78 that year. A copy of his passport also gives his birth year as 1883, and the 1900 U.S. Census gives his age as 17. Growing up in a mostly Irish neighborhood, he was often involved in fights with neighborhood boys. He said as a kid, he sometimes had up to 10 bouts each day. After his father abandoned the family when Attell was 13, he sold newspapers to earn money. Selling at the corner of 8th and Market, near the Mechanics Pavilion, a frequent venue for important boxing matches, Attell watched the fight between Solly Smith and George Dixon for the world's Featherweight championship. With that, Attell and his brothers Caesar and Monte became convinced they might have futures in boxing.

Attell's first professional fight was at age 17 on August 19, 1900, when he knocked out Kid Lennett in two rounds at the San Francisco Athletic Club.[2] His mother, who strongly opposed his boxing, later became one of his staunchest supporters, betting on him to win.

World featherweight champion

Portrait of Attell
After winning 10 fights in a row by knockout, Attell moved to Denver, Colorado. At the age of 18, he fought George Dixon and beat him in a 15-round decision after having drawn with him twice before. In 1903, he beat Johnny Reagan in a 20 round decision to claim the previously vacated featherweight title one year after Young Corbett II vacated.

Attell successfully defended his title twenty-two times between 1906 and 1912, which to this day remains a division record. Among other opponents, Attell beat Battling Nelson and Johnny Kilbane during this period. He was often called "The Little Champ" or "The Little Hebrew" by newspapers. From 1909 to 1910, his brother Monte Attell, called the "Nob Hill Terror", held the Bantamweight Championship, making them the first brothers to hold world titles simultaneously. His brother, Caesar Attell also fought and was called "Two and a Half," for always giving that amount whenever the hat was passed for charity at a boxing event, which he attended faithfully. During his time as world featherweight champion, Attell was allegedly involved with gambler/gangster Arnold Rothstein. According to some accounts, they became good friends during this period.

Attell defeated American 1905 World Bantamweight Champion Jimmy Walsh three times in title matches; on September 12, 1907, for a ten-round decision in Indianapolis, on December 7, 1906, in a ten-round TKO in Los Angeles, and on February 22, 1906, for a fifteen-round decision in Chelsea, Massachusetts, in which Attell "badly punished" Walsh. Not surprisingly, Attell was the odds on favorite for the December 1906 fight. He met Attell twice in non-title matches on April 3, 1913, in New York in a ten-round loss by decision and on October 24, 1912, in a twelve-round draw in Boston. After the April 3, 1913, New York bout, Walsh's manager Eddie Keevin filed charges against Attell with the New York boxing commission stating that Attell had used eye gouging against Walsh during the fight.[3][4][5]

Later career
Attell lost his World Featherweight Title to Johnny Kilbane in 1912, in a 20-round decision. Kilbane claimed that Attell's handlers put chloroform on the fighter's glove to blind him. Other witnesses claimed other illegal tactics were used in the fight.[6] On July 4, 1913, Attell accidentally hit a referee during a win against Willie Beecher. He finally retired in 1917. Attell managed one boxer, Marty Goldman. He coached him to a 33 Win (10 ko's), 11 Loss, 3 Draw record in 47 career fights.[7]

After his professional boxing career ended, Attell operated a shoe store in New York City, doing a good business selling to customers, fans and sporting people who came in to see him. He gave up the shoe business around June 1916 to go into vaudeville.

His name was later linked to the infamous Black Sox baseball scandal of 1919. He was alleged to have been the bag man for gambler Arnold Rothstein and to have given $10,000 to several Chicago White Sox players. They had in return agreed to throw the World Series with Cincinnati. When the scandal broke in 1920, Attell went to Canada for a year to avoid being subpoenaed. Rothstein was never indicted for the crime.

Black Sox Scandal
In 1920 Attell was accused of being the messenger between the gangster Rothstein and players of the Chicago White Sox baseball organization, during the planning stages of the fix of the 1919 World Series. Prior to the series, Attell had been approached by former fighter Billy Maharg and former Major League Baseball pitcher "Sleepy" Bill Burns in their bid to get Rothstein to financially back the fix. The Black Sox scandal was considered a major outrage in sports and Attell's name appeared in newspaper headlines related to the scandal. He and many White Sox players were formally charged with several counts, including fixing the event, however Rothstein was never charged. All were eventually acquitted at trial, but Major League Baseball banned them from participating in baseball activities at any level. Attell denied having been involved in any talks about fixing the series and convinced the jury that the wrong Abe Attell was accused.

In the 1988 film Eight Men Out, Attell was portrayed by actor Michael Mantell.

Death
Attell died in New Paltz, New York, on February 7, 1970.[7][8]

In 2017, McFarland & Company published the first comprehensive biography of Attell, The Fighting Times of Abe Attell, by author Mark Allen Baker.[7]

Legacy and honors
Attell was inducted posthumously as a member of various halls of fame:

1955, the Ring Boxing Hall of Fame [9]
1982, National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame;
1983, the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame[9]
1981, World Boxing Hall of Fame.
1985, San Francisco Boxing Hall of Fame;
1990, first class of the International Boxing Hall of Fame
His record of 92 wins, 10 losses, 18 draws and 45 no-decisions, with 51 wins by knockout, earned him a place on the list of Ring Magazine: "Fighters with 50 or More Knockout Wins".
Professional boxing record
All information in this section is derived from BoxRec,[10] unless otherwise stated.

Official record
154 fights    72 wins    9 losses
By knockout    38    4
By decision    34    5
Draws    19
No contests    2
Newspaper decisions/draws    52
All newspaper decisions are officially regarded as “no decision” bouts and are not counted in the win/loss/draw column.

No.    Result    Record    Opponent    Type    Round    Date    Location    Notes
Unofficial record
154 fights    110 wins    17 losses
By knockout    38    4
By decision    72    13
Draws    25
No contests    2
Record with the inclusion of newspaper decisions in the win/loss/draw column.

No.    Result    Record    Opponent    Type    Round    Date    Location    Notes
154    Loss    110–17–25 (2)    Phil Virgets    TKO    4 (15)    Jan 8, 1917    Orleans A.C., New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.    
153    Win    110–16–25 (2)    Frankie Callahan    KO    3 (10)    Sep 6, 1915    Gloversville, New York, U.S.    
152    Loss    109–16–25 (2)    Willie Beecher    NWS    10    Jul 24, 1913    Atlantic A.A., Rockaway Beach, Queens, New York City, New York, U.S.    
151    Win    109–15–25 (2)    George Chaney    PTS    15    Apr 28, 1913    Empire Theater, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.    
150    NC    108–15–25 (2)    Benny Kaufman    NC    7 (10)    Apr 15, 1913    Orpheum Theater, Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.    Promoter Henry Norton stopped the bout and declared it a "no contest."
149    Win    108–15–25 (1)    Jimmy Walsh    NWS    10    Apr 3, 1913    Forty-Fourth Street A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
148    Win    107–15–25 (1)    Oliver Kirk    TKO    3 (10)    Mar 19, 1913    Forty-Fourth Street A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
147    Loss    106–15–25 (1)    Oliver Kirk    TKO    6 (8)    Nov 27, 1912    Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
146    Draw    106–14–25 (1)    Jimmy Walsh    PTS    10    Sep 24, 1912    Pilgrim A.A., Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.    
145    Loss    106–14–24 (1)    Harry Thomas    NWS    10    Sep 13, 1912    Madison Square Garden, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
144    Draw    106–13–24 (1)    Harlem Tommy Murphy    PTS    20    Aug 3, 1912    Coffroth's Mission Street Arena, Daly City, California, U.S.    
143    Win    106–13–23 (1)    Eddie Marino    PTS    10    Jul 3, 1912    Tacoma A.C., Tacoma, Washington, U.S.    
142    Win    105–13–23 (1)    Jimmy Carroll    KO    7 (20)    Mar 23, 1912    Capital AC, Sacramento, California, U.S.    
141    Loss    104–13–23 (1)    Harlem Tommy Murphy    PTS    20    Mar 9, 1912    Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California, U.S.    
140    Loss    104–12–23 (1)    Johnny Kilbane    PTS    20    Feb 22, 1912    Arena, Vernon, California, U.S.    Lost world featherweight title
139    Loss    104–11–23 (1)    Knockout Brown    NWS    10    Jan 18, 1912    National S.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
138    Win    104–10–23 (1)    Willie Jones    NWS    10    Dec 2, 1911    Gowanus A.C., Brooklyn, New York City, New York, U.S.    
137    Win    103–10–23 (1)    Patsy Kline    NWS    10    Dec 1, 1911    Navarre A.C., Brooklyn, New York City, New York, U.S.    
136    Win    102–10–23 (1)    Leo Johnson    TKO    5 (10)    Nov 23, 1911    Malvern A.C., Bronx, New York City, New York, U.S.    
135    Win    101–10–23 (1)    Willie Jones    NWS    10    Nov 20, 1911    Olympia Boxing Club, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
134    Win    100–10–23 (1)    Young Johnny Cohen    NWS    10    Nov 15, 1911    Houston A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
133    Win    99–10–23 (1)    Herman Smith    NWS    10    Nov 3, 1911    International A.C., Buffalo, New York, U.S.    
132    Loss    98–10–23 (1)    Matt Wells    NWS    10    Sep 20, 1911    Madison A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
131    Win    98–9–23 (1)    Frankie Burns    NWS    10    Mar 31, 1911    New Amsterdam Opera House, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
130    NC    97–9–23 (1)    Tommy Kilbane    NC    4 (10)    Jan 30, 1911    Eagles Club, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.    Attell broke his right humeral bone when the fighters stumbled and fell
129    Draw    97–9–23    Billy Allen    NWS    10    Jan 23, 1911    Alhambra, Syracuse, New York, U.S.    
128    Win    97–9–22    Patsy Kline    NWS    10    Jan 13, 1911    New Amsterdam Opera House, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
127    Win    96–9–22    Joe Coster    NWS    10    Jan 9, 1911    Vanderbilt A.C., Brooklyn, New York City, New York, U.S.    
126    Win    95–9–22    Philadelphia Pal Moore    NWS    10    Nov 30, 1910    Fairmont A.C., Bronx, New York City, New York, U.S.    
125    Draw    94–9–22    Frankie Conley    PTS    15    Nov 13, 1910    West Side A.C., Gretna, Louisiana, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
124    Draw    94–9–21    Owen Moran    NWS    6    Nov 9, 1910    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
123    Win    94–9–20    Eddie Kelly    KO    4 (?)    Oct 28, 1910    Mohawk Valley A.C., Amsterdam, New York, U.S.    
122    Win    93–9–20    Biz Mackey    TKO    6 (10)    Oct 27, 1910    Brown's Gym, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
121    Win    92–9–20    Johnny Kilbane    PTS    10    Oct 24, 1910    Hippodrome, Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.    
120    Draw    91–9–20    Jack White    PTS    15    Oct 10, 1910    Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada    
119    Win    91–9–19    Frankie White    NWS    10    Oct 7, 1910    Hippodrome, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.    
118    Win    90–9–19    Charley White    NWS    10    Sep 16, 1910    Hippodrome, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.    
117    Win    89–9–19    Billy Lauder    KO    7 (15)    Sep 5, 1910    Mission Hill, Calgary, Alberta, Canada    Won lightweight championship of Calgary
116    Win    88–9–19    Eddie Marino    KO    3 (15)    Aug 22, 1910    Calgary, Alberta, Canada    
115    Win    87–9–19    Owen Moran    NWS    10    Jun 24, 1910    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    
114    Win    86–9–19    Harlem Tommy Murphy    NWS    10    May 20, 1910    New Amsterdam Opera House, National S.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
113    Loss    85–9–19    Harlem Tommy Murphy    NWS    10    Apr 28, 1910    Empire A.C., Manhattan Casino, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
112    Win    85–8–19    Owen Moran    NWS    10    Apr 1, 1910    Fairmont A.C., Bronx, New York City, New York, U.S.    
111    Win    84–8–19    Johnny Marto    NWS    10    Mar 18, 1910    New Amsterdam Opera House, National S.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
110    Win    83–8–19    Harry Forbes    TKO    7 (?)    Feb 28, 1910    Troy, New York, U.S.    
109    Win    82–8–19    Frankie Neil    NWS    10    Feb 24, 1910    Long Acre A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
108    Win    81–8–19    Eddie Kelly    TKO    5 (15)    Jan 1, 1910    Southern A.C., Savannah, Georgia, U.S.    
107    Win    80–8–19    Charley White    PTS    8    Dec 6, 1909    Phoenix A.C., Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.    
106    Win    79–8–19    Jimmy Moran    PTS    8    Nov 22, 1909    Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
105    Win    78–8–19    Patsy Kline    NWS    6    Oct 8, 1909    Nonpareil A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
104    Win    77–8–19    Buck 'Twin' Miller    NWS    6    Oct 5, 1909    Douglas A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
103    Win    76–8–19    Tommy O'Toole    PTS    12    Sep 14, 1909    Armory, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
102    Win    75–8–19    Eddie Kelly    NWS    6    Sep 6, 1909    Luna Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
101    Draw    74–8–19    Harry Stone    NWS    10    Aug 18, 1909    Convention Hall, Saratoga, New York, U.S.    
100    Win    74–8–18    Biz Mackey    TKO    8 (10)    Apr 26, 1909    Southern Theatre, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
99    Win    73–8–18    Frankie White    KO    8 (20)    Mar 26, 1909    Dayton A.C., Dayton, Ohio, U.S.    
98    Win    72–8–18    Frankie Neil    NWS    10    Mar 23, 1909    Bedford A.C., Brooklyn, New York City, New York, U.S.    
97    Win    71–8–18    Patsy Kline    NWS    10    Mar 18, 1909    Whirlwind A.C., Brooklyn, New York City, New York, U.S.    
96    Win    70–8–18    Young Pierce    KO    6 (15)    Mar 10, 1909    Olympic Club, Essington, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
95    Win    69–8–18    Young Pierce    NWS    6    Mar 1, 1909    Washington S.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
94    Loss    68–8–18    Jim Driscoll    NWS    10    Feb 19, 1909    National A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
93    Win    68–7–18    Eddie Kelly    TKO    7 (10)    Feb 4, 1909    Southern A.C., New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
92    Win    67–7–18    Freddie Weeks    KO    10 (20)    Jan 14, 1909    Goldfield A.C., Goldfield, Nevada, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
91    Win    66–7–18    Biz Mackey    KO    8 (15)    Dec 29, 1908    West Side A.C., Gretna, Louisiana, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
90    Draw    65–7–18    Ad Wolgast    NWS    10    Dec 11, 1908    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    
89    Loss    65–7–17    Freddie Welsh    PTS    15    Nov 25, 1908    Jeffries' Arena, Vernon, California, U.S.    
88    Draw    65–6–17    Owen Moran    PTS    23    Sep 7, 1908    Mission Street Arena, San Francisco, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
87    Win    65–6–16    Eddie Marino    PTS    10    Jul 29, 1908    Sandpoint, California, U.S.    
86    Win    64–6–16    Matty Baldwin    NWS    6    Jun 26, 1908    Grand Union A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
85    Win    63–6–16    Tommy Sullivan    TKO    4 (20)    Apr 30, 1908    Coliseum, San Francisco, California, U.S.    
84    Win    62–6–16    Eddie Kelly    KO    8 (20)    Apr 20, 1908    Sound Beach, Washington, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
83    Draw    61–6–16    Battling Nelson    PTS    15    Mar 31, 1908    Coliseum, San Francisco, California, U.S.    
82    Win    61–6–15    Eddie Kelly    TKO    7 (20)    Feb 28, 1908    Dreamland Rink, San Francisco, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
81    Win    60–6–15    Frankie Neil    TKO    13 (20)    Jan 31, 1908    Dreamland Rink, San Francisco, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
80    Draw    59–6–15    Owen Moran    PTS    25    Jan 1, 1908    Coffroth's Arena, Colma, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
79    Win    59–6–14    Freddie Weeks    TKO    4 (20)    Oct 29, 1907    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
78    Draw    58–6–14    Tommy Sullivan    PTS    8    Sep 21, 1907    Physical Culture Farm, Alton, Illinois, U.S.    
77    Win    58–6–13    Jimmy Walsh    PTS    10    Sep 12, 1907    Auditorium (Virginia Ave.), Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
76    Win    57–6–13    Benny 'Kid' Solomon    PTS    20    May 24, 1907    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
75    Loss    56–6–13    Tommy O'Toole    NWS    6    Apr 17, 1907    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
74    Draw    56–5–13    Spike Robson    NWS    6    Apr 3, 1907    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
73    Win    56–5–12    Harry Baker    KO    8 (20)    Jan 18, 1907    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
72    Win    55–5–12    Jimmy Walsh    TKO    9 (20)    Dec 7, 1906    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
71    Win    54–5–12    Billy DeCoursey    PTS    15    Nov 16, 1906    National Athletic Club, San Diego, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
70    Win    53–5–12    Harry Baker    PTS    20    Oct 30, 1906    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
69    Win    52–5–12    Frank Carsey    RTD    3 (15)    Sep 3, 1906    Davenport, Iowa, U.S.    
68    Win    51–5–12    Frank Carsey    PTS    15    Aug 15, 1906    Reed's Lake, Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S.    
67    Win    50–5–12    Frankie Neil    PTS    20    Jul 4, 1906    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
66    Draw    49–5–12    Kid Herman    PTS    20    May 11, 1906    Naud Junction Pavilion, Los Angeles, California, U.S.    
65    Win    49–5–11    Phil Logan    NWS    6    Mar 19, 1906    Washington S.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
64    Win    48–5–11    Itsy Ryan    TKO    2 (3)    Mar 17, 1906    Metropolitan A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
63    Win    47–5–11    Art Edmunds    NWS    3    Mar 13, 1906    Marlborough A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
62    Win    46–5–11    Tony Bender    NWS    3    Mar 7, 1906    Consolidated A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
61    Win    45–5–11    Jimmy Walsh    PTS    15    Feb 22, 1906    Lincoln A.C., Chelsea, Massachusetts, U.S.    Won vacant world featherweight title
60    Win    44–5–11    Billy Maynard    TKO    10 (15)    Jan 22, 1906    Auditorium, Portland, Oregon, U.S.    
59    Win    43–5–11    Tony Bender    NWS    3    Jan 17, 1906    Olympia Boxing Club, Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
58    Win    42–5–11    Chester Goodwin    NWS    15    Jan 15, 1906    Summit A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
57    Win    41–5–11    Eddie Daly    NWS    3    Dec 19, 1905    Summit A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
56    Win    40–5–11    Barney Abel    NWS    3    Dec 5, 1905    Summit A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
55    Draw    39–5–11    Kid Sullivan    PTS    15    Nov 23, 1905    Eureka A.C., Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.    
54    Win    39–5–10    Tommy Mowatt    PTS    15    Nov 16, 1905    Germania Maennerchor Hall, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.    
53    Win    38–5–10    Tommy Mowatt    NWS    6    Nov 8, 1905    Washington S.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
52    Win    37–5–10    Chick Tucker    NWS    3    Oct 31, 1905    Summit A.C., Manhattan, New York City, New York, U.S.    
51    Loss    36–5–10    Young Erne    NWS    6    Oct 4, 1905    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
50    Win    36–4–10    Battling Nelson    NWS    6    May 22, 1905    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
49    Win    35–4–10    Harry Forbes    PTS    10    May 10, 1905    Light Guard Armory, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.    
48    Win    34–4–10    Jimmy Dunn    NWS    15    May 1, 1905    Broadway Theater, Sharon, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
47    Win    33–4–10    Eddie Hanlon    NWS    6    Feb 24, 1905    Industrial Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
46    Draw    32–4–10    Kid Goodman    PTS    15    Feb 22, 1905    Douglas A.C., Chelsea, Massachusetts, U.S.    
45    Win    32–4–9    Tommy Feltz    PTS    15    Feb 3, 1905    Germania Maennerchor Hall, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.    
44    Win    31–4–9    Harlem Tommy Murphy    NWS    6    Jan 28, 1905    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
43    Win    30–4–9    Tommy Feltz    PTS    15    Dec 8, 1904    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
42    Win    29–4–9    Young Erne    PTS    20    Nov 19, 1904    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
41    Loss    28–4–9    Tommy Sullivan    KO    5 (20)    Oct 3, 1904    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    Lost world featherweight title
40    Win    28–3–9    Johnny Reagan    PTS    15    Jun 23, 1904    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
39    Loss    27–3–9    Jack McClelland    PTS    15    Jun 2, 1904    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
38    Win    27–2–9    Young Erne    NWS    6    May 14, 1904    National A.C., Philadelphia, Illinois, U.S.    
37    Win    26–2–9    Aurelio Herrera    PTS    6    Mar 28, 1904    American A.C., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.    
36    Win    25–2–9    Maurice Rauch    KO    6 (?)    Mar 23, 1904    Whittington A.C., Hot Springs, Arkansas, U.S.    
35    Win    24–2–9    Patsy Haley    KO    5 (20)    Mar 9, 1904    Whittington A.C., Hot Springs, Arkansas, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
34    Draw    23–2–9    Young Erne    NWS    6    Feb 27, 1904    National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.    
33    Win    23–2–8    Kid Herman    PTS    20    Feb 18, 1904    9th Ward A.C., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.    
32    Win    22–2–8    Harry Forbes    KO    5 (20)    Feb 1, 1904    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
31    Draw    21–2–8    Harry Forbes    PTS    10    Jan 4, 1904    Indianapolis A.C., Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.    Retained world featherweight title
30    Win    21–2–7    Johnny Reagan    PTS    20    Sep 3, 1903    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    Won vacant world featherweight title
29    Win    20–2–7    Eddie Toy    PTS    20    Mar 12, 1903    Woodward's Pavilion, San Francisco, California, U.S.    
28    Draw    19–2–7    Eddie Hanlon    PTS    20    Jan 29, 1903    Woodward's Pavilion, San Francisco, California, U.S.    
27    Win    19–2–6    Buddy Ryan    PTS    6    Dec 8, 1902    American A.C., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.    
26    Draw    18–2–6    Harry Forbes    PTS    6    Nov 10, 1902    American A.C., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.    
25    Win    18–2–5    Aurelio Herrera    PTS    15    Oct 15, 1902    Exposition Building, Oakland, California, U.S.    
24    Win    17–2–5    Barney Abel    PTS    20    Sep 11, 1902    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
23    Win    16–2–5    Barney Abel    PTS    6    Aug 25, 1902    America A.C., Chicago, Illinois, U.S.    
22    Loss    15–2–5    Benny Yanger    TKO    19 (25)    Apr 24, 1902    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    Yanger claimed vacant world featherweight title
21    Win    15–1–5    Kid Broad    PTS    20    Apr 10, 1902    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
20    Draw    14–1–5    Kid Broad    PTS    15    Mar 20, 1902    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
19    Loss    14–1–4    Harry Forbes    PTS    15    Nov 4, 1901    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
18    Win    14–0–4    George Dixon    PTS    15    Oct 28, 1901    West End A.C., Saint Louis, Missouri, U.S.    
17    Draw    13–0–4    George Dixon    PTS    20    Sep 12, 1901    Grand Opera House, Cripple Creek, Colorado, U.S.    
16    Draw    13–0–3    George Dixon    PTS    10    Aug 23, 1901    Coliseum Hall, Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
15    Win    13–0–2    Colorado Jack Dempsey    PTS    20    Aug 12, 1901    Rover's Club, Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.    
14    Win    12–0–2    Kid Decker    KO    3 (?)    Aug 1, 1901    Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.    
13    Win    11–0–2    Tommy Lewis    TKO    4 (5)    Jul 26, 1901    Coliseum Hall, Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
12    Draw    10–0–2    Scotty Williams    PTS    5    Jul 26, 1901    Coliseum Hall, Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
11    Win    10–0–1    William Henry    TKO    3 (5)    Jun 28, 1901    Colorado A.A., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
10    Win    9–0–1    Jockey Bozeman    TKO    3 (10)    Jun 26, 1901    Wheel Club, Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
9    Win    8–0–1    Young Cassidy    TKO    2 (10)    Apr 26, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
8    Win    7–0–1    Scotty Williams    KO    2 (5)    Apr 12, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
7    Win    6–0–1    Kid Pelser    TKO    2 (5)    Mar 29, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
6    Win    5–0–1    Tom Delaney    PTS    5    Mar 8, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
5    Win    4–0–1    John Ross    TKO    4 (5)    Mar 1, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
4    Draw    3–0–1    Young Buck    PTS    5    Feb 22, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
3    Win    3–0    Young Buck    PTS    5    Feb 15, 1901    Colorado A.C., Denver, Colorado, U.S.    
2    Win    2–0    Mike Smith    KO    2 (?)    Jan 26, 1901    San Francisco, California, U.S.    
1    Win    1–0    Jockey Bozeman    PTS    10    Dec 20, 1900    Woodward's Pavilion, San Francisco, California, U.S.

Arnold Rothstein (January 17, 1882 – November 6, 1928),[1] nicknamed "The Brain", was an American racketeer, gangster, businessman and gambler who became a kingpin of the Jewish Mob in New York City. Rothstein was widely reputed to have organized corruption in professional athletics, including conspiring to fix the 1919 World Series. He was also a mentor of future crime bosses Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, Frank Costello, Bugsy Siegel and numerous others.

Rothstein is credited with "transform[ing] organized crime from a thuggish activity by hoodlums into a big business run like a corporation,"[1] gaining notoriety as the person who first realized the lucrative opportunities afforded by Prohibition and "understood the truths of early 20th century capitalism (giving people what they want) and came to dominate them."[2] His notoriety inspired several fictional characters based on his life, portrayed in contemporary and later forms of media, including the character Meyer Wolfsheim in F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby (1925).[3]

Rothstein refused to pay a large debt resulting from a fixed poker game and was murdered in 1928. His illegal empire was broken up and distributed among a number of other underworld organizations and led in part to the downfall of New York State's Tammany Hall political machine and the rise of reformer Fiorello La Guardia.

Early life and education
Arnold Rothstein was born in New York City on January 17, 1882, the son of an affluent Ashkenazi Jewish businessman, Abraham Rothstein, and his wife, Esther Rothschilds. His father was a man of upright character, who had acquired the nickname "Abe the Just."[4] Rothstein himself was highly skilled at mathematics but was otherwise uninterested in school.[4] Known to be a difficult child, Rothstein harbored a deep envy of his older brother Harry, who studied to become a rabbi.[5] His father believed that young Rothstein craved to be the center of attention and became frustrated when he was not.[4]

As a child, Rothstein began to indulge in gambling, despite repeated admonishment by his father. In 1921, when asked how he became a gambler, Rothstein said: "I always gambled. I can't remember when I didn't. Maybe I gambled just to show my father he couldn't tell me what to do, but I don't think so. I think I gambled because I loved the excitement. When I gambled, nothing else mattered."[6]

Illegitimate career
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By 1910, at age 28, Rothstein had moved to the Tenderloin district of Manhattan, where he established a casino. He also invested in a horse racing track at Havre de Grace, Maryland, where he was reputed to have fixed many of the races that he won. Rothstein built a wide network of informants, very deep pockets from some among his father's banker associates and the willingness to pay a premium for good information, regardless of the source. His successes made him a millionaire by age 30.

1919 World Series
Main article: Black Sox Scandal

Rothstein in 1919
There is a great deal of evidence both for and against Rothstein being involved in the 1919 World Series fix.[6] In 1919, Rothstein's agents allegedly paid members of the Chicago White Sox to throw the World Series to the Cincinnati Reds. He bet against them and made a large profit in what was called the "Black Sox Scandal".[7]

Summoned to Chicago to testify before a grand jury investigating the incident, Rothstein said he was an innocent businessman, intent on clearing his name and his reputation. Prosecutors could find no evidence linking Rothstein to the affair, and he was never indicted. Rothstein testified:

The whole thing started when Abe [Attell] and some other cheap gamblers decided to frame the Series and make a killing. The world knows I was asked in on the deal and my friends know how I turned it down flat. I don't doubt that Attell used my name to put it over. That's been done by smarter men than Abe. But I was not in on it, would not have gone into it under any circumstances and did not bet a cent on the Series after I found out what was under way.[8]

In another version of the story, Rothstein was first approached by Joseph "Sport" Sullivan, a gambler, who suggested Rothstein help fix the World Series. Rothstein supposedly refused Sullivan's proposal but when he received Attell's offer, Rothstein reconsidered Sullivan's first offer. He figured that the competition to fix the game made it worth the risk to get involved and still be able to conceal his involvement. David Pietrusza's biography of Rothstein suggests that the gangster worked both ends of the fix with Sullivan and Attell.[9] Michael Alexander concluded that Attell fixed the Series "probably without Arnold Rothstein's approval", which "did not prevent Rothstein from betting on the Series with inside knowledge".[10]

Leo Katcher said that "all the records and minutes of the Grand Jury disappeared. So too did the signed confessions of Cicotte, Williams and Jackson.... The state, virtually all of its evidence gone, sought to get the players to repeat their confession on the stand. This they refused to do, citing the Fifth Amendment." Eventually, the judge had no choice but to dismiss the case. Katcher went on, "Thus, on the official record and on the basis of [State Attorney Maclay] Hoyne's statement, Rothstein was never involved in the fixing of the Series. Also, on the official record, it was never proved that the Series had been fixed." Despite the legal case against the ballplayer defendants being dismissed, all eight White Sox players named as trial defendants were permanently banned from playing or participating as coaches in Major League Baseball (MLB) by the newly named first Commissioner, Kenesaw Mountain Landis. Despite all the denials, Katcher noted that "while Rothstein won the Series, he won a small sum. He always maintained it was less than $100,000. It actually was about $350,000. It could have been much – very much – more. It wasn't because Rothstein chickened out. A World Series fix was too good to be true – even if it was true."[6]

1921 Travers Stakes
Under the pseudonym "Redstone Stable", Rothstein owned a racehorse named Sporting Blood, a very popular racehorse in the early ’20s, which won the 1921 Travers Stakes under suspicious circumstances. Rothstein allegedly conspired with a leading trainer, Sam Hildreth, to drive up Sporting Blood's odds. Hildreth entered an outstanding three-year-old, Grey Lag, on the morning of the race, causing Sporting Blood's odds to rise to 3–1. Rothstein bet $150,000 through bookmakers, allegedly having been informed that the second favorite, Prudery, was off her feed. Just before post time and without explanation, Hildreth scratched Grey Lag from the starting list. Rothstein collected over $500,000 in bets plus the purse, but a conspiracy was never proved.[11]

Prohibition and organized crime
With the advent of Prohibition, Rothstein saw the opportunities for bootlegging and narcotics. Liquor was smuggled along the Hudson River, as well as from Canada across the Great Lakes and into Upstate New York. Rothstein also purchased holdings in a number of speakeasies. He became the first to import illegal Scotch whisky in his own fleet of transatlantic freighters, knowing that high-end booze would be the "chic thing to have."[12]

With his banking support and high-level political connections, Rothstein soon managed to end-run Tammany Hall to the street gangs. Subsequently, his criminal organization included such underworld notables as Meyer Lansky, Jack "Legs" Diamond, Charles "Lucky" Luciano, and Dutch Schultz, whose combined gangs and double-dealing with their own respective bosses subverted the entire late 19th-century form of political gangsterism. Rothstein's various nicknames were Mr. Big, The Fixer, The Man Uptown, The Big Bankroll, and The Brain.[citation needed]

Rothstein frequently mediated disputes among the New York gangs and reportedly charged a hefty fee for his services. His favorite "office" was Lindy's, at Broadway and 49th Street in Manhattan. He often stood on the corner surrounded by his bodyguards and did business on the street. Rothstein made bets and collected debts from those who had lost the previous day.[citation needed] Meanwhile, he exploited his role as mediator with the city's legitimate business world and soon forced Tammany Hall to recognize him as a necessary ally in its administration of the city. Many historians credit him as the first successful modern drug dealer.[13][14][15]

By 1925, Rothstein was one of the nation's most powerful criminals and had forged a large criminal empire. For a time he was the nation's largest bootlegger, until the rise of George Remus. With a reported wealth of over $10 million (equivalent to $162 million in 2024),[16] Rothstein was one of the wealthiest gangsters in U.S. history and is widely considered one of the founders of U.S. organized crime.[4]

Death
On November 4, 1928, Rothstein was shot and wounded during a business meeting at Manhattan's Park Central Hotel at Seventh Avenue near 55th Street.[17][18] He died two days later at the New York Polyclinic Hospital.[19]

The shooting was reportedly linked to debts owed from a three-day high-stakes poker game in October, for which Rothstein owed $320,000 (equivalent to $5.9 million in 2024[20]). He claimed the game was fixed and refused to pay, provoking his murder.[21] Gambler George "Hump" McManus was arrested for homicide, but later acquitted for lack of evidence.[21]

According to Kevin Cook, author of Titanic Thompson, the poker game was fixed by gambler Titanic Thompson (born Alvin Clarence Thomas) and his associate, Nate Raymond. Due to some complicated side bets, by the end Rothstein owed Raymond $319,000 (much of which Raymond, by secret agreement, was to pass on to Thompson); $30,000 to Thompson; and about $200,000 to the other gamblers present. McManus owed Rothstein $51,000. Rothstein stalled for time, saying he would not be able to pay until after the elections of November 1928, when he expected to win $550,000 for backing Herbert Hoover for president and Franklin D. Roosevelt for governor. Thompson testified at McManus's trial, calling him "a swell loser" who would never have shot Rothstein.[22] According to Cook, Thompson later told some of his acquaintances that the killer had not been McManus, but his bag man Hyman Biller, who fled to Cuba shortly afterward.[22]

In Kill the Dutchman!, a biography of Dutch Schultz published in 1971, the crime reporter Paul Sann suggested that Schultz murdered Rothstein. He says this was in retaliation for the murder of Schultz's friend and associate Joey Noe by Rothstein's protégé Jack "Legs" Diamond.[full citation needed]

On his deathbed, Rothstein refused to identify his shooter, answering police inquiries with "You stick to your trade. I'll stick to mine",[23] and "Me mudder [my mother] did it."[24] Rothstein was buried at Ridgewood's Union Field Cemetery.

Break-up of empire
At the time of Rothstein's death, Prohibition was in full swing, various street gangs were battling for control of liquor distribution, and the carefully constructed political boss structure of the late 19th century had collapsed. Frank Erickson, Meyer Lansky, Bugsy Siegel, and other former associates split up Rothstein's criminal enterprises after his death. The already-weakened Tammany Hall had relied on Rothstein to control the new street gangs, and his death finished the corrupt political organization.[25] With Tammany's fall, reformer Fiorello La Guardia rose in prominence and was elected Mayor of New York City in 1933.

Ten years after his death, Harry Rothstein, Arnold's brother, declared Rothstein's estate insolvent and Arnold's wealth disappeared.[citation needed]

In popular culture
Theater
In 1930, Rothstein's girlfriend, Inez Norton, to whom he had left a substantial sum in his will, appeared in the Broadway play Room 349 by Mark Lindner, which claimed to represent the actual circumstances of his murder.[26][27]
Literature
Rothstein is referred to as "The Brain" in several of Damon Runyon's short stories, including a fictional version of his death in "The Brain Goes Home". As a newspaper reporter, Runyon came to know Rothstein personally and later covered the trial of his alleged killer. According to historian David Pietrusza, Rothstein was also the inspiration for the character Nathan Detroit, who appears in the short story "Blood Pressure" as well as the musical Guys and Dolls.
In The Great Gatsby, Meyer Wolfsheim is a Jewish friend and mentor of Jay Gatsby, described as a gambler who fixed the World Series. The character is commonly assumed to be an allusion to Rothstein.[28]
Film and television
In the 1930 film Street of Chance, William Powell played a gambler who is shot after cheating in a poker game. The film was widely recognized as based on Rothstein's murder.[29]
With the fictional name Murray Golden, he was portrayed by Spencer Tracy in the 1934 film Now I'll Tell, loosely based on the autobiography of wife and widow Carolyn Green Rothstein (or "Mrs. Arnold Rothstein," as the film's title card reads).
Rothstein was portrayed in the 1960 film The Rise and Fall of Legs Diamond by Robert Lowery.
In the 1961 film The Big Bankroll (a.k.a. King of the Roaring Twenties: The Story of Arnold Rothstein) by David Janssen.
In a deleted scene from the 1974 Best Picture winner The Godfather Part II, supporting character Hyman Roth is introduced to Vito Corleone, who suggests that he change his name, which was originally Hyman Suchowsky. When Vito asks him whom he admires, Suchowsky says Arnold Rothstein, for having fixed the 1919 World Series; accordingly, he changes his last name to Roth.[30]
In the 1981 film Gangster Wars and series The Gangster Chronicles, played by George DiCenzo.
In the 1988 sports drama film Eight Men Out, played by Michael Lerner.
In the 1991 film Mobsters, played by F. Murray Abraham.
In the 1995 Martin Scorsese film Casino the protagonist, Sam "Ace" Rothstein, was named for Arnold Rothstein[citation needed] but modeled on real-life sports bettor and fixer Frank "Lefty" Rosenthal.
In the 1999 biopic Lansky, played by Stanley DeSantis.
In the HBO series Boardwalk Empire, played by Michael Stuhlbarg.
He is portrayed by Hugh Scully in the AMC series The Making of the Mob: New York, a docudrama focusing on the history of the mob.
Associates
Waxey Gordon – worked as a rum-runner for Rothstein during the first years of Prohibition.
Harry "Nig" Rosen – involved in narcotics with Rothstein during the mid-1920s.
Lucky Luciano – viewed to have been mentored by Rothstein, who supported him early in his career as a racketeer and taught him how to be a full-fledged kingpin. They are both among New York's most notorious gangster kingpins, and are directly responsible for the modernization and subsequent public obsession with American organized crime.
Meyer Lansky – along with partner Luciano, he was somewhat mentored by Rothstein during Prohibition. Both Jewish Mob members, they were instrumental in the rise and glorification of modern American organized crime.
Alfred Loewenstein, Belgian financier, with whom Rothstein allegedly had a deal to supply America with European-made heroin.[31]
Enoch "Nucky" Johnson – business partners during the bootlegging boom of the Roaring Twenties.

The Black Sox Scandal was a game-fixing scandal in Major League Baseball (MLB) in which eight members of the Chicago White Sox were accused of intentionally losing the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for payment from a gambling syndicate, possibly led by organized crime figure Arnold Rothstein. There is strong evidence both for and against Rothstein's involvement; however, there is no conclusive indication that the syndicate's actions were directed by or involved organized crime.[1]

In response to the scandal, the National Baseball Commission was dissolved and Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis was appointed to be the first commissioner of baseball, given absolute control over the sport to restore its integrity. Despite acquittals in a public trial in 1921, Landis permanently banned all eight implicated players from professional baseball. The Baseball Hall of Fame eventually defined the punishment as banishment from consideration for the Hall. Despite requests for reinstatement in the decades that followed (particularly in the case of Shoeless Joe Jackson), the ban remained in force for more than a century.[2] In 2025, Commissioner Rob Manfred reinstated the Black Sox and several other now-deceased players.

Background
Tension in the clubhouse and Charles Comiskey

1919 Chicago White Sox team photo
In 1919, Charles Comiskey, the owner of the Chicago White Sox and a prominent Major League Baseball (MLB) player from 1882 to 1894, was widely resented by his players for his miserliness. As a player, Comiskey had taken part in the Players' League labor rebellion in 1890 and long had a reputation for underpaying players, even though the White Sox were one of the top teams in the league and had already won the 1917 World Series.

Because of baseball's reserve clause, any player who refused to accept a contract was prohibited from playing baseball on any other professional team under the auspices of "Organized Baseball." Players could only change teams with permission from their current team, and without a union, the players had no bargaining power. Comiskey was probably no worse than most owners of the time; in fact, the White Sox had the largest team payroll in 1919. In the era of the reserve clause, gamblers could find players on many teams looking for extra cash—and did.[3][4]

The White Sox clubhouse was divided into two factions. One group resented the more straitlaced players (later called the "Clean Sox"), a group that included second baseman Eddie Collins, a graduate of Columbia College of Columbia University; catcher Ray Schalk; and pitchers Red Faber and Dickie Kerr. By contemporary accounts, the two factions rarely spoke to each other on or off the field, and the only thing they had in common was a resentment of Comiskey.[5]

The conspiracy

Chick Gandil, the mastermind of the scandal
On September 18, 1919, White Sox player Chick Gandil met with Joe "Sport" Sullivan, a Boston bookmaker, at the Hotel Buckminster near Fenway Park. The two men discussed plans to throw their upcoming series with the Cincinnati Reds for $80,000 ($1,575,000 in September 2025).[6] Two days later, a meeting of White Sox players—including those committed to going ahead with the fix and those just ready to listen to the proposal—took place in Gandil's room at the Ansonia Hotel in New York City. Buck Weaver, the team's third baseman, was the only player to attend the meetings who did not receive money; nevertheless, he was later banned along with the other seven Black Sox for knowing about the fix but not reporting it.

Although he hardly played in the series, utility infielder Fred McMullin heard about the fix and threatened to report the others unless he was in on the payoff. As a small coincidence, McMullin was a former teammate of retired player William "Sleepy Bill" Burns, who had a minor role in the fix. Both had played for the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League (PCL),[7][8] and Burns had previously pitched for the White Sox in 1909 and 1910.[9] Star outfielder "Shoeless Joe" Jackson was mentioned as a participant but did not attend the meetings, and his involvement remains disputed.

The scheme got an unexpected boost when the straitlaced Faber could not pitch due to getting sick with the flu. Years later, Schalk said the fix would not have happened if Faber had been available. According to Schalk, since Faber was the ace of the staff, he would almost certainly have gotten starts that went instead to two of the alleged conspirators, pitchers Eddie "Knuckles" Cicotte and Lefty Williams.[10]

Conduct of the World Series
Main article: 1919 World Series
On October 1, the day of Game One, there were rumors amongst gamblers that the World Series was fixed, and a sudden influx of money being bet on Cincinnati caused the odds against them to fall rapidly. These rumors also reached the press box where several correspondents, including Hugh Fullerton of the Chicago Herald and Examiner and ex-player and manager Christy Mathewson, resolved to compare notes on any plays and players that they felt were questionable. However, most fans and observers were taking the series at face value. On October 2, the Philadelphia Bulletin published a poem which would quickly prove to be ironic:

Still, it really doesn't matter,
After all, who wins the flag.
Good clean sport is what we're after,
And we aim to make our brag
To each near or distant nation
Whereon shines the sporting sun
That of all our games gymnastic
Base ball is the cleanest one!

After throwing a strike with his first pitch of the Series, Cicotte's second pitch struck Cincinnati leadoff hitter Morrie Rath in the back, delivering a pre-arranged signal confirming the players' willingness to go through with the fix.[10] In the fourth inning, Cicotte made a lousy throw to Swede Risberg at second base. Sportswriters found the unsuccessful double play to be suspicious.[11]

Williams lost three games, a Series record. Kerr, a rookie who was not part of the fix, won both of his starts. However, the gamblers were now reneging on their promised progress payments (to be paid after each game lost), claiming that all the money was let out on bets and was in the hands of the bookmakers. After Game Five, angry about the non-payment of promised money, the players involved in the fix attempted to doublecross the gamblers and won Games Six and Seven of the best-of-nine Series. Before Game Eight, threats of violence were made on the gamblers' behalf against players and family members.[12] Williams started Game Eight but gave up four straight one-out hits for three runs before manager Kid Gleason relieved him. The White Sox lost Game Eight (and the series) on October 9, 1919.[13] Besides Weaver, the players involved in the scandal received $5,000 each (equivalent to $91,000 in 2024) or more, with Gandil taking $35,000 (equivalent to $635,000 in 2024).

Fallout
Grand jury (1920)
Rumors of the fix dogged the White Sox throughout the 1920 season as they battled the Cleveland Indians for the American League pennant, and stories of corruption touched players on other clubs as well. At last, in September 1920, a grand jury was convened to investigate; Cicotte confessed to his participation in the fix to the grand jury on September 28.[14]

On the eve of their final season series, the White Sox were in a virtual tie for first place with the Indians. The Sox would need to win all three of their remaining games and then hope for Cleveland to stumble, as the Indians had more games left to play than the Sox. Despite the season being on the line, Comiskey suspended the seven White Sox still in the majors (Gandil had not returned to the team in 1920 and was playing semi-pro ball). He later said he had no choice but to suspend them, even though this action likely cost the Sox any chance of winning a second pennant. The Sox lost two of the three games in the final series against the St. Louis Browns and finished in second place, two games behind the Indians, who went on to win the 1920 World Series.

The grand jury issued its decision on October 22, 1920, and eight players and five gamblers were implicated. The indictments included nine counts of conspiracy to defraud.[15] The ten players not implicated in the scandal, as well as manager Kid Gleason, were each given $1,500 bonus checks (equivalent to $23,500 in 2024) by Comiskey in October 1920, the amount equaling the difference between the winners' and losers' share for participation in the 1919 Series.[16]

Trial (1921)

Infielders Swede Risberg (left) and Buck Weaver during their 1921 trial
The trial commenced in Chicago on June 27, 1921, but was delayed by Judge Hugo Friend because two defendants, Ben Franklin and Carl Zork, claimed to be ill.[17] Right fielder Shano Collins was named as the wronged party in the indictments, accusing his corrupt teammates of having cost him $1,784 as a result of the scandal.[18] Before the trial, key evidence went missing from the Cook County courthouse, including the signed confessions of Cicotte and Jackson, who subsequently recanted their confessions. Some years later, the missing confessions reappeared in the possession of Comiskey's lawyer.[19]

On July 1, the prosecution announced that Burns, who was under indictment for his part in the scandal, had turned state's evidence and would testify.[20] During jury selection on July 11, several members of the current White Sox team, including Gleason, visited the courthouse, chatting and shaking hands with the indicted ex-players; at one point they even tickled Weaver, who was known to be quite ticklish.[21] Jury selection took several days, but on July 15 twelve jurors were finally empaneled in the case.[22]

Trial testimony began on July 18, when prosecutor Charles Gorman outlined the evidence he planned to present against the defendants. Here's a contemporaneous description from The New York Times:

The spectators added to the bleacher appearance of the courtroom, for most of them sweltered in shirtsleeves, and collars were few. Scores of small boys jammed their way into the seats, and as Mr. Gorman told of the alleged sell-out, they repeatedly looked at each other in awe, remarking under their breaths: 'What do you think of that?' or 'Well, I'll be darned.'[23]

Comiskey was then called to the stand, and became so agitated with questions being posed by the defense that he rose from the witness chair and shook his fist at the defendants' counsel, Ben Short.[23]

The most explosive testimony began the following day, July 19, when Burns admitted that members of the White Sox had intentionally fixed the 1919 Series; Burns mentioned the involvement of organized crime figure Arnold Rothstein, among others, and testified that Cicotte had threatened to throw the ball clear out of the park if needed to lose a game.[24] After additional testimony and evidence, on July 28 the defense rested and the case went to the jury.[25] The jury deliberated for less than three hours before returning verdicts of not guilty on all charges for all of the accused players.[15]

Landis appointed Commissioner, bans all eight players (1921)
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Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis signs the agreement to become Commissioner of Baseball, November 12, 1920.
Long before the scandal broke, many of baseball's owners had nursed longstanding grievances with the way the game was then governed by the National Baseball Commission.[26] The Black Sox scandal and the damage it caused to the game's reputation gave owners the resolve to make significant changes to the governance of the sport.[26] Their original plan was to appoint the widely respected federal judge and noted baseball fan Kenesaw Mountain Landis to head a reformed three-member commission comprising men unconnected to baseball.[26] However, Landis made it clear to the owners that he would only accept an appointment as the game's sole commissioner, and even then only on the condition that he be granted essentially unchecked power over the sport. Desperate to clean up the game's image, the owners agreed to his terms and vested him with virtually unlimited authority over everyone in the major and minor leagues.[26] It was controversial at the time for MLB to move toward a single commissioner with sole governance on behalf of the owners.

Upon taking office before the 1921 season, one of Landis' first acts as commissioner was to use his new powers to place the eight implicated players on an "ineligible list", a decision that effectively left them suspended indefinitely from all of "organized" professional baseball (although not from semi-pro barnstorming teams). Following their acquittals, Landis quickly quashed any prospect that he might reinstate the accused players. On August 3, 1921, the day after the acquittals, Landis issued his own verdict:

Regardless of the verdict of juries, no player who throws a ball game, no player who undertakes or promises to throw a ball game, no player who sits in confidence with a bunch of crooked ballplayers and gamblers, where the ways and means of throwing a game are discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever play professional baseball.[27]

Making use of a precedent that had previously seen Babe Borton, Harl Maggert, Gene Dale and Bill Rumler banned from the PCL for fixing games,[28] Landis made it clear that all eight accused players would remain on the "ineligible list," banning them from organized baseball. Landis took the position that while the players had been acquitted in court, there was no dispute they had broken the rules of baseball, and none of them could ever be allowed back in the game if it were to regain the public's trust. Comiskey supported Landis by giving the seven who remained under contract to the White Sox their unconditional release.

Following the commissioner's statement, it was universally understood that all eight implicated players were to be banned from professional baseball for life. Landis, relying upon his years of experience as a federal judge and attorney, used this decision (the "case") as the founding precedent (of the reorganized majors) for the Commissioner of Baseball to be the highest and final authority over baseball as an organized, professional sport in the United States. He established the precedent that the league vested the commissioner with plenary power and the responsibility to determine the fitness or suitability of anyone, anything, or any circumstance, to be associated with professional baseball, past, present and future.

Banned players
Main article: List of people banned from Major League Baseball
Landis banned eight members of the 1919 White Sox for their involvement in the fix:

Arnold "Chick" Gandil, first baseman. The ringleader of the players who were in on the fix. He did not play in the majors in 1920; he played semi-pro ball instead. In a 1956 Sports Illustrated article, Gandil expressed remorse for the fix. Still, he wrote that the players had actually abandoned the scheme when it became apparent that they would be watched closely. According to Gandil, the players' numerous errors resulted from fear of being watched. However, he conceded that the players deserved to be banned just for talking to the gamblers.[29][30]
Eddie Cicotte, pitcher. Admitted involvement in the fix.[14]
Oscar "Happy" Felsch, center fielder.
"Shoeless" Joe Jackson, the star outfielder and one of the best hitters in the game. Jackson confessed in sworn grand jury testimony to having accepted $5,000 in cash from the gamblers. It was also Jackson's sworn testimony that he never met or spoke to any of the gamblers and was only told about the fix through conversations with other White Sox players. The other participants informed Jackson that he would receive $20,000 in cash divided into equal payments after each loss. Jackson testified that he played to win in the entire Series and did nothing on the field to throw any of the games in any way. His roommate, pitcher Lefty Williams, brought $5,000 in cash to their hotel room after losing Game Four and threw it down as they were packing to travel back to Cincinnati; this was the only money that Jackson received at any time.[31] Jackson later recanted his confession and professed his innocence to no effect until his death in 1951. The extent of his collaboration with the scheme is hotly debated.[10]
Fred McMullin, utility infielder. McMullin would not have been included in the fix had he not overheard the other players' conversations. His role as team scout may have had more impact on the fix since he saw minimal playing time in the series.
Charles "Swede" Risberg, shortstop. Risberg was Gandil's assistant and the "muscle" of the playing group. He went 2-for-25 at the plate and committed four errors in the series.
George "Buck" Weaver, third baseman. Weaver attended the initial meetings, and while he did not go in on the fix, he knew about it. In an interview in 1956, Gandil said that it was Weaver's idea to receive the money upfront from the gamblers.[15] Landis banished Weaver on this basis, stating, "Men associating with crooks and gamblers could expect no leniency." On January 13, 1922, Weaver unsuccessfully applied for reinstatement. Like Jackson, he continued to profess his innocence to successive baseball commissioners to no effect.
Claude "Lefty" Williams, pitcher. Went 0–3 with a 6.63 ERA for the series. Only one other pitcher in baseball history, reliever George Frazier of the 1981 New York Yankees, has ever lost three games in one World Series. The third game Williams lost was Game Eight; baseball's decision to revert to a best-of-seven Series in 1922 significantly reduced the opportunity for a pitcher to obtain three decisions in a Series.
Also banned was Joe Gedeon, second baseman for the St. Louis Browns. A friend of Risberg, Gedeon learned about the fix from Risberg and placed bets on Cincinnati. He informed Comiskey of the fix after the Series to gain a reward. Instead, Landis banned him for life along with the eight White Sox.[32]

Joe Jackson

Shoeless Joe Jackson
The extent of Jackson's part in the scheme remains controversial. He had a Series-leading .375 batting average—including the Series' only home run—threw out five baserunners and handled thirty chances in the outfield with no errors. In general, players perform worse in games their team loses, and Jackson batted worse in the five games that the White Sox lost, with a batting average of .286 in losing games. This was still an above-average batting average (the National and American Leagues hit a combined .263 in the 1919 season).[33] Jackson hit .351 for the season, fourth-best in the major leagues (his .356 career batting average is the fourth-best in history, surpassed only by Ty Cobb, Oscar Charleston and Rogers Hornsby) – each an MLB batting average leader. Three of his six RBIs came in the losses, including the aforementioned home run, and a double in Game Eight when the Reds had a significant lead and the series was all but over. Still, in that game, a long foul ball was caught at the fence with runners on second and third, depriving Jackson of a chance to drive in the runners.

One play in particular has been subjected to scrutiny. In the fifth inning of Game Four, with a Cincinnati player on second, Jackson fielded a single hit to left field and threw home, which was cut off by Cicotte. Gandil later admitted to yelling at Cicotte to intercept the throw. The run scored, and the Sox lost 2–0.[34] Cicotte, whose guilt is undisputed, made two errors in that fifth inning alone.

Years later, all the implicated players said that Jackson was never present at their meetings with the gamblers. Williams, Jackson's roommate, later said they only mentioned Jackson in hopes of giving them more credibility with the gamblers.[10]

Aftermath
After being banned, Risberg and several other members of the Black Sox tried to organize a three-state barnstorming tour. However, they were forced to cancel those plans after Landis let it be known that anyone who played with or against them would also be banned from baseball for life. They then announced plans to play a regular exhibition game every Sunday in Chicago, but the Chicago City Council threatened to cancel the license of any ballpark that hosted them.[10]

With seven of their best players permanently sidelined, the White Sox crashed into seventh place in 1921 and would not be a contender in a pennant race again until 1936, five years after Comiskey's death. They would not win another American League championship until 1959 (a then-record forty-year gap) nor another World Series until 2005, prompting some to comment about a Curse of the Black Sox.

Name
Although many believe the Black Sox name to be related to the dark and corrupt nature of the conspiracy, the term "Black Sox" may already have existed before the fix. There is a story that the name "Black Sox" derived from Comiskey's refusal to pay for the players' uniforms to be laundered, instead insisting that the players themselves pay for the cleaning. As the story goes, the players refused, and subsequent games saw the White Sox play in progressively filthier uniforms as dirt, sweat and grime collected on the white, woolen uniforms until they took on a much darker shade. Comiskey then had the uniforms washed and deducted the laundry bill from the players' salaries.[35] On the other hand, Eliot Asinof in his book Eight Men Out makes no such connection, mentioning the filthy uniforms early on but referring to the term "Black Sox" only in connection with the scandal.

Popular culture
Literature
Eliot Asinof's book Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series, while initially considered a definitive account of the scandal, was later found to have taken numerous liberties with the facts of the story. Many details will forever be lost to history, as Asinof's 1963 book was considered the definitive historical record upon which later anthologies relied; by the time it was discovered that the book was unreliable, nearly all the original participants had died.[36][37][38]
Brendan Boyd's novel Blue Ruin: A Novel of the 1919 World Series offers a first-person narrative of the event from the perspective of "Sport" Sullivan, a Boston gambler involved in fixing the series.
In F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby, a minor character named Meyer Wolfsheim is said to have helped in the Black Sox scandal, though this is purely fictional. In explanatory notes accompanying the novel's 75th-anniversary edition, editor Matthew Bruccoli describes the character as being based on Arnold Rothstein.
In Dan Gutman's novel Shoeless Joe & Me (2002), the protagonist, Joe, goes back in time to try to prevent Shoeless Joe Jackson from being banned for life.
W. P. Kinsella's novel Shoeless Joe is the story of an Iowa farmer who builds a baseball field in his cornfield after hearing a mysterious voice. Later, Shoeless Joe Jackson and other members of the Black Sox come to play on his field. The novel was adapted into the film Field of Dreams (1989). Jackson plays a central role in inspiring protagonist Ray Kinsella to reconcile with his past.
Bernard Malamud's 1952 novel The Natural and its 1984 filmed dramatization of the same name were inspired significantly by the events of the scandal.
Harry Stein's novel Hoopla, alternately co-narrated by Buck Weaver and Luther Pond, a fictitious New York Daily News columnist, attempts to view the Black Sox Scandal from Weaver's perspective.
Dan Elish's book The Black Sox Scandal of 1919 gives a general overview.
The Black Sox Scandal: The History And Legacy Of America's Most Notorious Sports Controversy by Charles River Editors talks about the events surrounding the scandal and describes the people involved.
"Go! Go! Go! Forty Years Ago" Nelson Algren, Chicago Sun-Times, 1959
"Ballet for Opening Day: The Swede Was a Hard Guy" Algren, Nelson. The Southern Review, Baton Rouge. Spring 1942: p. 873.
"The Last Carousel" by Nelson Algren, 1973, Seven Stories Press, New York 1997 (both Algren stories are included in this collection)
Film
In the film The Godfather Part II (1974), the fictional gangster Hyman Roth alludes to the scandal when he says, "I've loved baseball ever since Arnold Rothstein fixed the World Series in 1919".
Director John Sayles' Eight Men Out (1988) is a dramatized adaptation of Asinof's book, focusing largely on Buck Weaver (played by John Cusack) as the one banned player who did not take any money. Also starring in the film are Charlie Sheen (Hap Felsch), Michael Rooker (Chick Gandil), David Strathairn (Eddie Cicotte), John Mahoney (Kid Gleason), Christopher Lloyd ("Sleepy" Bill Burns), Clifton James (Charles Comiskey) and D. B. Sweeney (Shoeless Joe Jackson). Sayles himself portrays sportswriter Ring Lardner.
Field of Dreams (1989), based upon the novel Shoeless Joe by W. P. Kinsella, discusses the scandal and features two of the players involved: Joe Jackson (Ray Liotta), who plays a large part in the film; and Eddie Cicotte (Steve Eastin). Field of Dreams starred Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan and James Earl Jones.
The Great Gatsby (2013), based on the novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald, speaks of the man who fixed the 1919 World Series.
Television
In the first season of Boardwalk Empire and the second season, the scandal is a significant subplot involving Arnold Rothstein, Lucky Luciano and their associates.
In the fifth season of Mad Men, Roger Sterling tries Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for the first time and hallucinates that he is at the infamous game.
In the second season of Frankie Drake Mysteries, morality officer Mary Shaw mentions the scandal while helping Frankie investigate the murder of a player with circumstances related to gambling.
The story of the scandal was narrated by Katie Nolan in the sixth season of Drunk History with the reenactment starring Jake Johnson, Steve Berg, and Eric Edelstein.
In episode 10, Rookie of the Year (Screen Directors Playhouse), Ward Bond plays a fictional character based on Shoeless Joe Jackson, one of the ball players banned for life from Major League Baseball because he participated in the 1919 World Series scandal.
Music
Murray Head's 1975 album Say It Ain't So takes its name after an apocryphal question put to Shoeless Joe Jackson during the court case.
On Jonathan Coulton's album Smoking Monkey, his song "Kenesaw Mountain Landis" greatly fictionalizes the commissioner's quest to ban Jackson from baseball in the style of a tall tale.
Theatre
1919: A Baseball Opera, is a musical by Composer/lyricist Rusty Magee and Rob Barron, which premiered in June 1981 at Yale Repertory Theatre.[39]
The Fix is an opera by composer Joel Puckett with libretto by Eric Simonson, which premiered March 16, 2019 at the Ordway Center for the Performing Arts.[40]
The 2023 musical adaptation of The Great Gatsby features the same reference to fixing the World Series as the original book and 2013 movie.
See also
Dowd Report, which led to the banishment of all-time hits leader Pete Rose as a result of gambling.
Black Mist Scandal, a similar match-fixing scandal in Japanese baseball
Major League Baseball scandals

Harlem Tommy Murphy (April 13, 1885 – November 26, 1958) was an American boxer whose career lasted from 1903 to 1917. He was a contender in three different divisions; being ranked in the bantamweight, featherweight and lightweight weight classes.[1] During his tenure as a fighter, he squared off against some of the greatest boxers of all-time, including Abe Attell, Packey McFarland, Terry McGovern, Ad Wolgast and Harry Harris.[2]

Notable bouts
Result    Opponent    Type    Rd., Time    Date    Location    Notes[2]
Loss    United States Willie Ritchie    PTS    20    1914-04-17    United States Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California    For World Lightweight Title.
Loss    United States Packey McFarland    NWS    10    1913-10-17    United States Madison Square Garden, New York, New York    Newspaper Decision
Win    United States Ad Wolgast    PTS    20    1913-04-19    United States Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California    
Draw    United States Ad Wolgast    PTS    20    1913-02-22    United States Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California    
Draw    United States Abe Attell    PTS    20    1912-08-03    United States Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California    
Win    United States Abe Attell    PTS    20    1912-03-09    United States Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California    
Loss    United States Packey McFarland    PTS    20    1911-11-30    United States Coffroth's Arena, Daly City, California    
Loss    United States Packey McFarland    NWS    10    1911-04-18    United States Fairmont A.C., Bronx, New York    Newspaper Decision
Loss    United States Abe Attell    NWS    10    1910-05-20    United States New Amsterdam Opera House, New York, New York    Newspaper Decision
Win    United States Abe Attell    NWS    10    1910-04-28    United States Empire A.C., New York, New York    Newspaper Decision
Win    United Kingdom Owen Moran    PTS    20    1910-02-28    United States Dreamland Rink, San Francisco, California    
Win    United States Ad Wolgast    NWS    6    1909-09-01    United States Duquesne Gardens, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania    Newspaper Decision
Win    United States Matty Baldwin    PTS    12    1909-06-01    United States Armory A.A., Boston, Massachusetts    
Loss    United Kingdom Owen Moran    PTS    12    1909-03-23    United States Armory A.A., Boston, Massachusetts    
Loss    United Kingdom Owen Moran    NWS    10    1909-03-16    United States Fairmont A.C., Bronx, New York    Newspaper Decision
Loss    United Kingdom Owen Moran    NWS    10    1909-01-29    United States New Amsterdam Opera House, New York, New York    Newspaper Decision
Loss    United States Packey McFarland    NWS    6    1908-11-18    United States National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania    Newspaper Decision
Draw    United States Matty Baldwin    PTS    12    1908-11-18    United States Armory A.A., Boston, Massachusetts    
Loss    United States Harry Harris    DQ    8 (10)    1907-06-03    United States National S.C., New York, New York    
Draw    United Kingdom Johnny Summers    NWS    6    1907-05-22    United States National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania    
Win    United States Young Corbett II    NWS    6    1907-01-09    United States National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania    
Loss    United States Matty Baldwin    PTS    15    1906-12-12    United States Pythian Rink, Chelsea, Massachusetts    
Loss    United States Terry McGovern    TKO    1 (6)    1905-10-18    United States National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania    
Win    Canada George Dixon    KO    2 (6)    1905-09-20    United States National A.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania